Eye Tracking im Bereich Human Factors, 1. Quartal 2026

Despite their significance as institutions of cultural preservation and education, many museums remain inaccessible to individuals with specific learning disorders (SpLDs), particularly Gen Z, who may face challenges in processing visual cues. This study explores the barriers that Gen Z individuals with SpLDs encounter in art museums. Through semi-structured interviews and eye-tracking studies, the research identifies key pain points. The article outlines barriers in museums, highlighting Gen Z’s perceptions and experiences. It features a case study of v...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

In response to the challenges of using traditional multimodal human–computer interaction models to understand complex user intentions in dynamic scenarios and traditional multimodal human–computer interaction models' heavy dependency of multimodal data on strong supervision signals, processing of high-dimensional heterogeneous modal data captures slow operating speed with poor robustness, this paper develops an artificial intelligence (AI)-powered multimodal human–computer interaction algorithm framework. In the first step, it builds a unified latent spa...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii VR

Despite significant advances in teleoperated systems, optimal human performance remains a challenging task due to one key aspect, i.e. reduced situational awareness. Active telepresence is one of the major contributing factors affecting operator’s situational awareness. Providing the user with multiple perspectives of the remote environment can be very beneficial, although it may also introduce challenges in maintaining effective control. Prior work has largely examined discrete manipulation tasks using single-modality assessments, whereas this study app...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab
• LSL

This paper presents an exploratory investigation into how atrium design is associated with users’ visual and emotional experiences. Focussing on spatial configuration and material qualities, the study integrates wearable eye-tracking with place attachment assessment to examine how users engage with real atrium environments. Thirty university students participated in on-site eye-tracking experiments measuring fixation duration, visit count, pupil diameter and time to first fixation, followed by a questionnaire on spatial familiarity and place attachment. ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Losing track of reading progress when switching lines can be frustrating. Eye gaze tracking technology offers a potential solution by highlighting read paragraphs, aiding users in avoiding wrong line switches. However, the gap between gaze tracking accuracy (2-3 cm) and text line spacing (3-5 mm) makes direct application impractical. Existing methods leverage the linear reading pattern but fail during jump reading. This paper presents a reading tracking and highlighting system that supports both linear and jump reading. The system leverages the large lan...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spark

[Context and motivation] Due to the increasing complexity of software systems, explainability has become a relevant quality aspect. Since the need for explanation is highly user- and context-dependent, the requirements engineering process of explainability is particularly important. [Question/problem] The elicitation of explanation needs is time-consuming and may be subject to several biases. To mitigate these biases, explanation needs are often elicited by observing users while using the respective system. However, this process is not trivial and depend...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Computer-aided detection (CADe) facilitates colorectal lesion detection, but it remains unclear whether CADe affects endoscopist's eye strain by altering gaze patterns. This study aimed to determine whether CADe-assisted colonoscopy is superior to conventional colonoscopy in reducing endoscopists' gaze-shift distance.METHODS: This single-center randomized controlled trial enrolled participants and randomly assigned them to two groups: first observation with CADe, then second observation without CADe (CADe-first group) in the ascending...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spark

To investigate the factors influencing insect behaviour, a monitoring system is needed that can automatically record insect activity and environmental conditions over extended periods. For this purpose, a stereo setup with two event cameras to capture the flight paths of insects is used. In this paper, the visualization of these flight trajectories within the context of their environment is focused on. The processing steps required to automatically detect reference markers in both the event data and the corresponding RGB video frames captured by a smartp...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

This study aims to examine the impact of brand logos and personal information requests on visual attention to mHealth app interfaces and app credibility judgments among smartphone users at varying levels of persuasion knowledge. A mixed-factorial lab experiment was employed, incorporating variables such as the presence of a brand logo, personal information requirements, and app repetition, and was analyzed using eye-tracking and self-report methods. It revealed that brand logos unexpectedly enhanced app credibility, suggesting that recognizable brand vis...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Lab

Quantifying and understanding human-AI alignment in high-risk tasks such as traffic accident prediction is crucial for deployment of AI systems. Existing alignment studies, however, focus mostly on the static domain and neglect the importance of attentional processing. Here, we present Attention‑DADA, a dataset of accident and non-accident traffic situations that contains detailed human prediction and frame-level eye gaze annotations. Using this benchmark, we evaluate open- and closed-source, state‑of‑the‑art large vision-language-models (VLMs) in terms ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Open Source Presentation

In the fields of information interaction design, the scientific assessment of human-machine interface complexity remains a crucial issue. This study proposed a cognitive complexity calculation method based on the Feature Similarity Value (FSV), which integrated the limited cognitive resource and visual saliency theory. The method quantified the feature differences and categorical diversity between targets and distractors within an interface. An experiment involving 20 participants was conducted using a dynamic interface, collecting behavioral, subjective...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

This study examines drivers’ gaze behavior in conditionally automated driving (CAD) to evaluate situation awareness (SA) using eye-tracking data and explainable artificial intelligence (XAI). SA was assessed in a laboratory experiment involving 39 participants using the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT) and the Situational Awareness Rating Technique (SART). Machine learning models and Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) analysis were applied to identify significant eye-tracking features for SA prediction. The findings suggest that ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Although many countries set the minimum age for children to cross streets alone at 9, the increasing popularity of smartwatches among children aged 9 to 12 has introduced new safety concerns. These wearable devices often distract young pedestrians, making them more susceptible to traffic-related hazards. To address this issue, we explored the use of ground-embedded flashing light emitting diode (LED) lights at pedestrian crossings—a relatively novel approach intended to recapture the attention of children distracted by their devices and to encourage safe...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Visual information should be presented clearly and effectively so that it is quickly and easily understood. The same principle applies to different types of maps and plans. This study explores the relationship between a map’s design and how users interact with it when searching for specific targets. Focusing on a digital tourist city map, we employed an eye-tracking technology to investigate how different cartographic designs (pictorial-based versus typography-based) influence visual search. As the need for visually appealing designs becomes an important...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

Expanding near-field regions in high-frequency 6G systems necessitates precise spatial-field control, yet narrow beamwidths and 3-dimensional tracking complexities create severe alignment hurdles. Here, we present an eye-tracking-driven programmable metasurface that bridges human visual intent with real-time electromagnetic responses via gaze-contingent beam steering. The system integrates a polarization-agile metasurface featuring independent 1-bit phase control for both copolarized and cross-polarized reflections. By engineering a 90° phase offset betw...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Trust is foundational to effective human intelligence collaboration. In under-trust conditions, operators tend to increase task load, which may lead to human error of visual neglect frequently, resulting in catastrophic accidents. Due to the inability to quantify the impact of under-trust, traditional human reliability analysis (HRA) methods rarely evaluate the human error probability (HEP) of visual neglect in human intelligence collaboration. This paper proposes a perception-time prediction method for under-trust, whose results can easily be transforme...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

This study presents a visual training design based on the Motivation, Engagement, and Thriving in User Experience (METUX) model to address low patient motivation and participation. It introduces a proactive approach by incorporating a playful scenario that alleviates digital eye strain and improves training outcomes. The study employs a three-phase experimental design: (1) validating the feasibility of visual training without additional equipment burden, (2) investigating the effects of gaze-controlled cursor movement on motivation and engagement, and (3...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Shimmer GSR
• ErgoLab

This study aimed to classify robot-assisted surgery (RAS) skill levels (inexperienced, competent, and experienced) during performance of vesico-urethral anastomosis (VUA) using multimodal physiological signals. We trained Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) models on data collected from 23 RAS (RAS trainees and experienced surgeons) performing two VUAs on animal tissue. The dataset included 116-channel electroencephalogram (EEG) and 20 eye-tracking signals recorded during two VUA subtasks: (1) needle grasping, positioni...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Accurate segmentation of cockpit Regions of Interest (ROIs) is fundamental for pilot visual assistance systems, yet current methods struggle with environmental variability and the high complexity of cockpit information. To address these challenges, this study proposes YOLO-EES, an enhanced semantic segmentation network designed for robust perception in dynamic flight environments. Specifically, we introduce wConv and EMA into the backbone to mitigate feature degradation caused by visual noise. Furthermore, the C2f module is reconstructed using Multi-orde...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• ErgoLab

As Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) and Human-Robot Collaboration (HRC) integrate into society, there's a growing need for flexible, safe, and cost-effective methods to evaluate HRI and HRC from a human perspective. Current evaluation techniques, which often rely on physical hardware, are limited by high costs, safety risks, and low replicability. To address these challenges, we introduce Platform for Evaluating Human-Robot Collaboration and Interaction in Virtual Environments (PEHRCIVE), a software tool built with Unity that leverages Virtual Reality (VR) ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii VR
• LSL

Despite the fact that robotic platforms can assist user in training tasks requiring eye-hand coordination (EHC) motor skills, there are few instances where the robot-assisted training paradigm is more effective than unassisted practice for skill acquisition. This may be largely due to the reason that current studies on robotic EHC training have elucidated several challenges, such as large-delay gaze-based feedforward predictions of participant's focused-object and unintuitive augmented feedback for delivering skill characteristics. To this end, we develo...Mehr anzeigen

Drivers' hazard perception is a critical factor in road safety. However, existing interventions in driver safety education and training lack relevance and interactivity. Additionally, these interventions typically fail to address the perception needs of potential hazards in complex traffic environment. This study investigated the effects of a psychological deception-induced intervention on drivers' hazard perception. A total of 45 drivers were recruited and randomly divided into a control group and two experimental groups (the informed false heart rate a...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• VARs

(1) Background: This study investigated developmental differences in gaze behaviors and performance during basketball free throws among youth athletes. (2) Methods: Forty-six male youth basketball players (U14, U16, U18) each performed 30 standardized free throws while wearing Tobii Pro Glasses 3 to record gaze data (Quiet Eye duration and Total Fixation duration). Shooting accuracy and cognitive workload (NASA-TLX) were also collected. One-way ANOVA, Pearson correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression analysis were conducted to examine age-rela...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Digital calendars are interactive representations of time that shape both scheduling outcomes and the micro-process of searching, verifying, and revising candidate placements. We examine calendar horizon-whether weekend time is visible in the default week view-as a boundary affordance in scheduling interfaces. Using eye tracking and interaction logs, we model each scheduling episode as a sequence of placement attempts and align gaze to each attempt, partitioning it into Early/Mid/Late phases and summarizing attention across structural AOIs (task panel, c...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

This chapter presents MOHICAN (MOnitoring of Human-machine performance via trust and Collaboration Analysis), an human–system integration (HSI) project for the assessment of human–machine teaming (HMT) performance in a combat aircraft cockpit equipped with a virtual assistant (VA). This project enhanced HSI through the assessment of trust and collaboration between a fighter pilot and the VA, concurrently with operational performance measurements. It involves human-in-the-loop simulation (HITLS) using a VA prototype incrementally enhanced using an agile d...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• Tobii Pro Lab

Digital heritage often prioritizes visual fidelity while neglecting interpretive clarity. This study examines whether synchronized narrative, delivered by interactive non-player characters (NPCs), can reduce semantic opacity in virtual industrial heritage. Using a VR reconstruction of Beijing’s Shougang Park, thirty participants were randomly assigned to NPC-guided or unguided exploration. Multimodal measures included gaze tracking, heart rate variability, electrodermal activity, respiration, post-experience questionnaires, and conceptual reflections ana...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii VR
• ErgoLab

Hazard perception is the ability to anticipate and respond to potentially dangerous traffic situations, which is an important aspect of driving competence. This paper analyses pupil size fluctuations, changes in fixation duration, and the dynamics of ambient/focal attention in a laboratory hazard-perception task to measure underlying attentional and cognitive mechanisms that occur when drivers detect hazards. In the task, licensed drivers (n = 42) watched videos of natural driving scenarios recorded through a dashboard camera while their eye movements we...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

Implementing an effective human-robot seamless interaction (HRSI) is a critical challenge for the industrial robotics community, which requires capturing all human mental processes and turn them into suitable robot’s actions. This work presents a method to adjust the robot behavior in real-time considering both human’s low-frequency, i.e. cognitive workload, and high-frequency cognitive processes, i.e. visual attention, which are generally overlooked in literature, to optimize safety, productivity and ergonomics. Regarding high-frequency processes, the s...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

The sustainable renewal of old residential communities faces increasing challenges in addressing the diverse environmental needs of older residents while respecting spatial constraints. Conventional approaches often treat older adults as a homogeneous group, overlooking how functional and social heterogeneity shape spatial perception. To address this gap, this study examines perceptual priorities in micro-public spaces of old residential communities in Qingdao, China, by classifying 60 community-dwelling older adults into four profiles using the Successf...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Prolonged esports play induces cognitive fatigue, characterized by diminished executive function with pupil constriction. Players often rely on caffeinated or sugary drinks to combat fatigue, but regular use poses health risks. Sparkling water, a sugar- and caffeine-free beverage, stimulates brainstem and prefrontal activity via sensory pathways potentially mediated by transient receptor potential (TRP) channels in the throat. This study tested the hypothesis that sparkling water mitigates cognitive fatigue during prolonged esports play. Fifteen young ad...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

Driving safety critically depends on the ability of drivers to efficiently recognize and process guide sign information under varying traffic conditions. This study examined how driving speed (slow/fast) and guide sign location (front/left) influence eye-movement behavior during guide sign recognition, and how these effects relate to drivers' cognitive functions and basic demographics. Twenty-four licensed drivers performed a guide sign recognition task using onboard video stimuli, and eye movements based on fixations and saccades were recorded. Generali...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

As the global population ages, the environmental quality of residential care facilities (RCFs) becomes paramount for seniors' well-being. This study investigates the visual perception of public spaces in RCFs. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, integrating eye-tracking experiments with 30 senior participants (N = 30), HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) color analysis, and subjective evaluations to analyze visual attention patterns. The results indicate that: 1) seniors’ visual perception is significantly modulated by spatial type and image parameters (color...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

How micro-scale street interface elements in historic commercial districts shape pedestrian dwelling behavior through visual perception remains underexplored, limiting evidence-based design strategies. This study develops and tests a mediation model linking interface elements, visual perception, and dwelling behavior. Ten functional, social, and experiential interface types were categorized. In-situ eye-tracking experiments combined with behavioral observations, analyzed via mixed-effects modeling and bootstrap mediation, yielded four key findings. First...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

HighlightsWhat are the main findings?A multimodal framework integrating ocular and cardiac signals showed superior overall performance for fatigue detection in remote tower operations compared with conventional baseline models.ECG/HRV and eye-tracking features played complementary roles in characterizing fatigue-related physiological and behavioral changes.What are the implications of the main findings?The proposed strategy improved the detection of minority fatigue events under severe class imbalance.Personalized calibration helped mitigate cross-subjec...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• ErgoLab

In complex driving environments, drivers must continuously detect and respond to critical visual information such as traffic signs and pedestrians. However, important targets may sometimes be overlooked due to high cognitive load during driving. Therefore, visual attention prompt methods have been proposed to guide drivers’ gaze toward relevant targets. A visual attention prompt method is a visual cue presented in a key area in a user’s field of view to draw his/her visual attention. This study evaluates the short-term performance of five visual attentio...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

Negative driving emotions constitute a significant factor compromising road safety. Current intelligent vehicle human machine interaction (HMI) systems predominantly focus on functional implementation, lacking the capability to perceive and adapt to the driver’s psychological state. To address this issue, this study investigates the intrinsic relationship between driving emotions and HMI through multimodal experiments. Experiment One reveals the distribution patterns of drivers’ visual attentional scope under different emotional states. Experiment Two es...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Autonomous wayfinding involves reading (digital) maps and memorizing route information in executable ways. The present study aimed to understand factors influencing navigational map-based route learning. Effects of a map reading instruction and the role of individual differences in perspective taking ability and visuospatial working memory capacity were investigated, considering interactions between effects of instruction and individual differences. In addition, gaze patterns were recorded to gain insights into the map reading process. In 2023, N = 106 u...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Open Source Presentation

Highlights•Multimodal feedback improves human-AI trust in autonomous drone operations.•Visual plus haptic cues yield the best performance and the lowest workload.•Audio feedback increased workload and reduced reliance on AI autonomy.•Eye-tracking data confirms reduced cognitive load with haptic human-AI interaction.•Provide design insights for trustworthy human-AI collaboration in drone systems.

• Tobii VR

OBJECTIVES: Conditionally automated vehicles (CAVs) can perform most dynamic driving tasks but still require human drivers to resume control when automation reaches its limits. Successful takeovers depend on drivers' cognitive resources-especially mental workload (MWL) management and situational awareness (SA)-which can be affected by sport-related concussion (SRC) and repeated head impacts. Guided by our proposed conceptual framework linking SRC-associated neurocognitive inefficiencies to MWL, SA, and CAV driving performance, this pilot study examined w...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

BackgroundIn the neurorehabilitation framework of treadmill-based robot-assisted gait training (t-RAGT), a threefold relationship among physiotherapist (Pht), patient (Pt), and the selected robotic device should be considered. Furthermore, the type of visual FeedBack (FB) selected for the training and how the Pht guides and supports the Pt have an important impact on Pt’s engagement. Pht-Pt interaction is mostly effective when FB with high technical content is employed, and it affects Pt’s visual attention and emotional experience during training. The IN...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

In the current phase of autonomous driving, drivers are still required to take over the vehicle when the driving environment exceeds the operating design domain of the system or when a failure occurs. This study focuses on the impact of visual-auditory attention-guiding takeover alerts on driver performance and subjective user experience during emergency takeovers. Twenty-eight young participants with advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) experience were recruited for the experiment. This study involved four combinations of multimodal attention-guidi...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

Air traffic control (ATC) is a demanding domain characterized by intense operational demands, including high workload and task complexity that act as significant contributors to operator fatigue alongside other physiological and psychological factors. This study investigates the effects of different types of microbreak interventions on post-task fatigue recovery among air traffic controllers (ATCOs). Using a simplified simulated ATC task, we recruited ATC-naïve participants to evaluate two types of microbreaks-meditation and walking-as well as a control ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

With the increasing frequency and severity of both natural and man-made disasters, risk decision-making behavior (RDMB) in heritage tourism destinations (HTDs) has gained growing attention. Traditional studies lack a comprehensive quantification from a “human-centered” perspective and ignore individual perceptual differences in earthquake scenarios, particularly in HTDs with complex architectural layouts and diverse road systems. Taking Gulangyu as a case study, this paper integrates behavioral decision theory (BDT) with the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses

Seafarer workload constitutes a critical determinant in human factor-induced maritime accidents. While existing studies inadequately address workload characterization in real-world navigation scenarios with sustained stable traffic flow complexity. To address the challenge posed by non-stationary EEG (electroencephalogram) signals to conventional static classifiers, a workload recognition framework integrating EEG scalograms and ResNet-50 deep learning model is proposed. This study captures synchronized EEG and eye-tracking data from passenger ferry seaf...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

This study investigates how differences in image resolution affect regions of visual fixation using images at 4K and 2K resolutions. Participants were presented with images of food, people, and outdoor scenes, and their gaze was recorded. The results show that higher resolution can lead, depending on image content, to more localized fixation regions or to the emergence of new fixation regions that do not appear at lower resolutions. We also compared several representative saliency-based gaze prediction models with the empirical gaze data and found clear ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion

Continuous driving can lead to mental overload, which presents risk of traffic accidents. Accurately predicting drivers' mental workload (MWL) is essential for ensuring road safety, yet it poses a considerable challenge. This study aimed to explore to what extent machine learning regression models can accurately predict drivers’ MWL based on multimodal physiological measures during continuous driving and to examine the efficacy of specific physiological modalities and their combinations in prediction performance. We also sought to examine how well the pr...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• ErgoLab
• VARs

BackgroundResistance training (RT) coaches can implement velocity-based training (VBT) to prescribe set volume by terminating sets at a target velocity loss (VL) threshold. However, VBT necessitates velocity-tracking devices that demand time and expertise. In a previous study, we asked RT coaches to detect VL thresholds using solely their observational judgment – the Coach’s Eye. We found improved accuracy when participants spontaneously used a “bar strategy” (focusing on the barbell). Here, we investigated whether coaches could be trained to intentional...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Existing research lacks a framework to analyze how mobile animations affect cognition and emotion. This study combines eye-tracking and the PAD scale within Garrett’s UX framework, examining how animation properties across structural, framework, and presentation layers shape user perception. The results show that: (1) Dynamic stimuli capture attention faster than static counterparts, particularly when task-relevant, though irrelevant animation may cause distraction; (2) Accelerated motions outperform uniform and decelerated animations in initial attentio...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• Tobii Pro Lab

For achieving theoretical prediction of situation awareness (SA) and providing valuable implications for human–machine interface design, an SA measurement model based on information categorization and cognitive process characterization was proposed. The model firstly categorized situation elements on the human–machine interface according to the skills, rules, and knowledge (SRK) taxonomy, and then introduced the effects of information categories as well as interface design into the qualitative analysis and quantitative characterization of cognitive proce...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

This study explores how multimodal interaction can improve medical terminal that currently rely on touch interaction. The design was grounded in two weeks of on-site observation across five tertiary hospitals and 12 semi-structured interviews, ensuring support for hands-busy patients and other special-needs users. We developed a high-fidelity prototype that combines concise voice output prompts for feedback and eye control for selection, while preserving a touch-only baseline and an eye-controlled-only variant. A between-subjects experiment (N = 69) comp...Mehr anzeigen

Ascription of leadership status is influenced by efficient cognitions that process visual cues, including a person’s clothing. The present research investigates the perceptual, attentional and higher-level cognitive processing (i.e. prototype activation) mechanisms underlying clothing-based leadership status ascription. Drawing on Implicit Leadership Theory and Cognitive Load Theory, we examine how clothing style (formal vs. informal) and clothing distinctiveness (standout vs. balanced) influence leadership status ascription. In two experiments – an onli...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Nuclear power plant diagnostic tasks impose high demands on operators’ situation awareness (SA) due to high time pressure and complex information integration. Based on information flow theory, this study first proposes information flow rate (bits/s) as an objective predictor of SA for nuclear diagnostic tasks, validating its effectiveness through simulations of steam generator tube rupture (SGTR) and small-break loss-of-coolant accident (SBLOCA) scenarios. Twenty-two participants (skilled and less-skilled groups) were recruited, using SART scores and eye...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

The utility of eye-tracking combined with video-feedback to enhance laparoscopic simulator training remains unexplored. This mixed-methods pilot study aimed to evaluate whether visualising gaze patterns during video feedback improves simulator performance and training experience. Ten surgical residents were randomised into an experimental group (receiving gaze-overlay video feedback) or a control group (standard video feedback). Participants performed standardised tasks in the Simball Box simulator. Quantitative performance metrics (time, error rates) an...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

This paper presents a systematic review of machine learning (ML) methods for cognitive load (CL) assessment and classification. From 1,949 studies retrieved from the Scopus database, 43 papers were identified that employed ML approaches for CL classification. Unimodal moddels using physiological (i.e., EEG, fNIRS, and HRV) or eye-tracking (i.e., pupil dilation) features achieved classification accuracies between 40 to 96%, while multimodal approaches integrating eye-tracking, and physiological features reported up to 98% accuracies. This review categorie...Mehr anzeigen

With rapid urbanization and longer indoor living, biophilic design has become an important strategy for supporting health within healing-oriented buildings. Contemporary therapeutic environments are also shifting from single-user (patient-centred) spaces towards multi-user, multi-generational settings shared by patients, family members and staff. However, it remains unclear how different generations visually engage with specific biophilic elements in such contexts. In this study, the three typical types of healing space (activity, transition, and healthc...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate how differences in case complexity affect information-processing burden, as measured by eye-tracking, as well as the efficiency of electronic health record (EHR) use among healthcare providers in the intensive care unit.MATERIALS AND METHODS: This cross-sectional study recruited providers from 4 U.S. medical centers that use 2 prominent EHR systems (Epic and Oracle). After reporting demographic information, participants reviewed 2 complex cases and 2 standard cases in their institution's EHR system and then respond...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii Pro Screen-based

Murals are vital cultural heritage assets, yet many are increasingly threatened by long-term natural weathering, environmental erosion, and human-induced damage. Given limited conservation resources, an objective method for prioritizing restoration is urgently needed. This study proposes an Individual-Aware Gradient Boosting Regression (IA-GBR) approach to predict the visual saliency of damaged mural regions by integrating physical damage characteristics, spatial location, and observer identity. We construct an eye-tracking dataset containing complete fi...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

Icon buttons in in-vehicle information systems (IVIS) are key interaction elements but can cause driver distraction. This study employed a full factorial within-subjects repeated measures design with three levels each of icon button number (6, 9, 15), position (left, middle, right), and familiarity (high, medium, low). A total of 60 drivers participated in a driving simulator study. Generalized estimating equation was employed to explore the effects of various factors on drivers’ visual and driving performance. The visual transfer characteristics were ex...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Mind perception theory explains how people attribute human-like qualities to technology. Drawing on this theory, this study introduces perceived competence and warmth as key dimensions of human-likeness in automated driving systems (ADS). We propose a post-usage model for Level-3 ADS trust and adoption. It extends TAM by incorporating the two human-likeness dimensions, trust, and automated social presence (ASP; feeling of being socially accompanied by automation). We conducted a driving-simulator experiment to manipulate users' perceptions of competence ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Pedestrians are one of the road users who bear the highest risk in unmarked midblock areas. The emergence of autonomous vehicles (AVs) has introduced new challenges in the interaction between pedestrians and AVs, which require efficient communication tools to coordinate traffic movement and maintain road safety. Previous studies have been conducted on vehicle kinematics (implicit communication) or external human-machine interface (eHMI) performance (explicit communication) of AVs. However, it remains unclear whether the eHMI onset timing and its interact...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii VR

Refugee populations worldwide face biases related to ethnicity, religion, country of origin, gender, and age. This study examines how such biases shift depending on whether participants view refugee identities through images or text labels. Using an empirical human–computer interaction (HCI) approach, we investigated ethnic bias toward Ukrainian and Syrian refugees across three conditions: (1) a cropped face image without any identifying text, (2) a cropped face image with a text label indicating ethnicity, and (3) a full-body image that includes context...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion

The increasing prevalence of sedentary behavior in college and university settings highlights the need to explore alternative solutions, such as active desk. However, little is known about the impact of using active desks on other lifestyle habits, such as nutrition. To examine how cycling desks at light and moderate intensity affect energy intake and food preferences during academic tasks among university students. Using a randomized crossover design, 18 university students completed tasks under three conditions: seated, light-intensity cycling, and mod...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Urban tunnels, as an important part of modern transportation networks, have drawn increasing attention due to the special and enclosed environment of their driving conditions. In tunnel operation management, speed limits and traffic markings are key factors influencing driver behavior, and the coordinated optimization of these two aspects plays a significant role in enhancing driving safety and traffic efficiency. This study focuses on the core element of driver reaction ability and explores the impact mechanisms of different speed limits and marking com...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Eye tracking reveals attention patterns in block-based programming. This lets us examine gender-linked differences as students manage the multimodal literacy of coordinating text prompts, color-coded blocks, navigation, and live output. We examined how K–12 students allocate attention while independently completing a short Scratch-like task using a mixed-methods approach. Thirty-two fourth- to sixth-grade students (19 boys, 13 girls) participated. We recorded gaze with a Tobii Spark screen-based tracker and analyzed the data in Tobii Pro Lab. For each st...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii Pro Spark

Objectives. Enhancing workers' risk perception through targeted training is crucial in reducing the likelihood of occupational accidents. Electroencephalography (EEG) is utilized as a robust tool for exploring the intricacies of how risk is processed by workers. This study proposes a procedure for recognizing workers' risk perception using EEG. Methods. Fifty-five construction workers were recruited to view the images depicting various types of hazards and the EEG signals were recorded simultaneously. Following the extraction of pertinent features, diffe...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii Pro Screen-based

This study investigated the effects of icon external features (icon salience) and internal features (icon familiarity and concreteness) on visual load and behavioral performance across visual search and semantic recognition tasks. Twenty-seven college students participated in a 2 (icon salience: high, low) × 2 (icon concreteness: concrete, abstract) × 2 (icon familiarity: familiar, unfamiliar) within-subject experiment. In the search task, only icon salience significantly affected reaction time and visual load, while familiarity and concreteness showed n...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Open Source Presentation

Indoor visual quality, especially regarding light Colour temperature, is crucial for environmental well-being. To address the lack of integrated subjective-objective analysis and the oversight of Colour-temperature-spatial synergy, this study combined semantic differential surveys, Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), and eye-tracking. Experiments with 25 participants in residential/public spaces under 2700K, 4200K, and 6000K lighting analyzed these interactions, leading to a Warmth-Colour-Spatial Interaction (WCSI) model. Key findings include: (1) complex ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

This pilot study presents a novel framework to quantify the human interaction with high-resolution aerial images on a digital display through psycho visual quantities. Many applications require the human interaction with high-resolution aerial images and therefore it is required to be understood. Considering this, the presented quantitative framework analyses correlations between visual and verbal data to examine human interaction with visually complex aerial images during interpretation. Four different correlations with respect to four visual metrics (T...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

In complex urban traffic environments, the design of multimodal prompts in augmented reality head-up displays (AR-HUDs) plays a critical role in driving safety and operational efficiency. Despite growing interest in audiovisual navigation assistance, empirical evidence remains limited regarding when prompts should be delivered and whether visual and auditory information should remain temporally aligned. To address this gap, this study aims to examine how audiovisual prompt timing and prompt mode influence driving behavior in AR-HUD navigation systems at ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Potential hazard warnings (PHWs) can enhance driving safety in complex scenarios; however, behavioral and safety implications of repeated PHWs remain unclear. This study developed a human-automation interaction model for PHWs in L3 ADS to examine the cry wolf effect and behavioral adaptation, while considering the moderating role of hazard type. We developed a PHW system, conducted a driving-simulator experiment with 92 participants, and validated our model using multilevel structural equation modeling. Results showed that repeated PHWs triggered the cry...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

With the accelerated pace of global urbanization, residents’ subjective perception of urban spaces has increasingly become a central issue in urban planning. Traditional research methods typically rely on static street view images, neglecting the visual attention patterns reflected by eye-tracking behavior and their interaction with urban space features in shaping residents’ perceptions. In response, this study proposes a multimodal urban perception model that integrates street view images and eye-tracking data, quantifying residents’ perceptions across ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion

The lighting environment has transcended purely functional illumination and has evolved into a critical medium for orchestrating narrative rhythm and modulating audience emotional responses. However, existing studies often examine photometric properties and human emotional responses in isolation, failing to establish a quantitative coupling mechanism to elucidate the relationship between light distribution, visual attention, and emotional states. This study aims to quantify the coupling mechanisms between luminous environmental parameters (illuminance an...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Modern geo-information platforms commonly adopt multi-window map interfaces that integrate heterogeneous data, such as dynamic maps and live camera feeds. These interfaces impose high cognitive load and slow spatial event detection. Operators must rapidly locate the source of visual alarms, a task often leading to delays under high visual workload. To address this challenge, this study investigated whether spatialized auditory cues can improve alarm localization in such complex monitoring interfaces. A controlled experiment with 24 participants used a wi...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• ErgoLab

BACKGROUND: Reading is a cognitively challenging skill that is used frequently in daily life, involving various visual factors. Previous studies have shown the impact of visual impairments on reading. The implementation of augmented reality (AR) is relatively new in ophthalmology. Studies have applied AR Head Mounted Displays (HMD) in vision enhancing systems for older drivers or as an instrument to compensate for metamorphopsia; however, the usability of an AR-HMD in ophthalmologic research has received little attention. The aim of this study was to ass...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion

Approaching in low-visible and windy conditions is dangerous. Pilots typically perform an instrumental approach (IA) and sometimes need to transition to a visual approach (VA), requiring effective attention allocations to ensure safety. This study investigates the associations between pilots’ attention allocation and flight path deviations during IA and VA under no wind, crosswind, and tailwind conditions. Flight path deviations include horizontal and vertical deviations. Then, a Bayesian Gamma regression incorporating principal components is employed to...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Cycling has gained increasing popularity across Europe, yet the frequency and severity of cyclist-vehicle conflicts at unsignalized intersections remain key road-safety concerns. This study investigates the interaction between drivers and cyclists in such settings, focusing on the role of intersection visibility (IV), difference in time to arrival (DTA) of the car and bicycle, and drivers' gaze behavior in shaping yielding decisions, braking patterns, and speed profiles. Using a driving simulator equipped with eye-tracking technology, participants comple...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Drivers in complex traffic environments face high cognitive demands, increasing accident risk, especially for older drivers. Augmented reality head-up displays (AR-HUD) can improve safety by projecting navigation cues directly into the forward view, yet age-specific guidelines for different traffic contexts are scarce. This study examines four AR-HUD design factors: display position (aerial or ground), indication distance (long or short), gradient transparency, and graphic animation. In a simulated congestion scenario, an aerial display paired with long-...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Eye movement classification, particularly the identification of fixations and saccades, plays a vital role in advancing our understanding of neurological functions and cognitive processing. Conventional modalities of data, such as RGB webcams, often face limitations such as motion blur, latency and susceptibility to noise. Neuromorphic Vision Sensors, also known as event cameras (ECs), capture pixel-level changes asynchronously and at a high temporal resolution, making them well suited for detecting the swift transitions inherent to eye movements. Howeve...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• Open Source Application

With the rapid increase of automation and intelligent assistance in modern traffic operations, human–machine interaction (HMI) has become central to system effectiveness and operational safety. In such high-stakes environments, operators often need to manage complex information flows and dynamic decision-making processes, making situation awareness (SA) a critical determinant of performance. However, the growing reliance on automated systems raises the risk of SA degradation, potentially undermining safety and efficiency. Eye-tracking has emerged as a pr...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

The growing popularity of Open-Source Software projects has raised questions about the challenges novice and inexperienced developers face, especially on code contribution platforms like GitHub. This study investigates the effects of using Worked Examples (WEs) to support these developers in solving coding tasks, using eye-tracking and cognitive effort analysis. The research involved 20 undergraduate students analyzing issues from the JabRef repository, with recommendations of high and low-similarity examples provided by a bot. The findings suggest that ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Open Source Application

Background: In precision Paralympic sports like wheelchair curling, visual attention is a paramount cognitive determinant of performance. While expertise-dependent differences in gaze behavior are documented in various sports, the specific cognitive mechanisms-particularly attentional selectivity and efficiency-underpinning elite performance in wheelchair curling remain unexplored. This study investigated the visual attention patterns of disabled curling athletes across skill levels to uncover the cognitive strategies associated with expertise.Methods: F...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Comprehensive design thinking is vital for architects to resolve spatial conflicts in architectural design. To address the limitations of traditional brainstorming (TB) in complex constraint scenarios, this study proposes a cognitive science-based semantic network simulation (SN) method. A controlled experiment was conducted with 60 architecture students randomly divided into SN and TB groups, tasked with solving the same rural cultural center entrance design conflict within 10 min, with eye-tracking monitoring subconscious thinking. Multi-dimensional ev...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spark
• ErgoLab

The integration of eye-tracking into consumer-grade virtual reality (VR) headsets presents a transformative opportunity for assessing user mental states within simulated, immersive environments. However, the validity of this built-in technology must be established against gold-standard real-world eye-tracking systems. This study employs a novel paradigm using a physically moving object to evaluate the accuracy of dynamic smooth pursuit, a key oculomotor function in mental state assessment. We rigorously validated the performance of the HTC Vive Pro Eye’s...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR

A key source of regional imagery construction lies in the concrete depiction of regional spaces within visual media, which, under the influence of globalization, faces the pressing challenge of homogenization. The mechanisms and emotional resonance of regional architecture and environments within visual scenes have become core issues in shaping regional culture. This study focuses on how regional imagery, from an ergonomic perspective, reflects the value of cultural heritage. First, four films were selected to analyze the narrative characteristics of var...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• SDK

Grassland highways, characterized by monotonous environments, sparse traffic, and insufficient visual references, often place drivers in prolonged low-stimulation states. Leads to attention decline and perceptual delays that increase takeover risks under Level 3 (L3) automated driving conditions. However, reliance on reaction time as a single indicator is insufficient to capture the multidimensional attributes and gradual evolution of takeover risk. To address this gap, this study proposes a multidimensional takeover risk assessment framework tailored to...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Eye-tracking-driven controls for assistive robotic arms provide people with severe physical disabilities with intuitive interaction opportunities.In this context, shared control can improve acceptance of the robot by partially automating task execution. Based on recent literature, we present a Wizard of Oz design for shared control driven by eye-tracking. This approach allows for the rapid exploration of user expectations to inform future design iterations. Two studies were conducted to assess user experience, identify design challenges, and determine wa...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Smart glasses are accelerating progress toward more seamless and personalized LLM-based assistance by integrating multimodal inputs. Yet, these inputs rely on obtrusive explicit prompts. The advent of gaze tracking on smart devices offers a unique opportunity to extract implicit user intent for personalization. This paper investigates whether LLMs can interpret user gaze for text-based tasks. We evaluate different gaze representations for personalization and validate their effectiveness in realistic reading tasks. Results show that LLMs can leverage gaze...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spark

In the vision of a “hybrid society,” the interaction between humans and embodied digital technologies is envisaged to be as smooth and seamless as human–human interaction. In the foreseeable future, however, humans will undoubtedly continue to interact with many machines through designated human–machine interfaces (HMIs). Designing such HMIs for production settings presents a particular challenge, as users may vary in their experience and expertise. Moreover, challenging issues of a specific HMI are often difficult to verbalize and therefore hard to obta...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• SDK

The paper presents a visio-verbal teleimpedance interface for commanding 3D stiffness ellipsoids to the remote robot with a combination of the operator's gaze and verbal interaction. The gaze is detected by an eye-tracker, allowing the system to understand the context in terms of what the operator is currently looking at in the scene. Along with verbal interaction, a Vision-Language Model (VLM) processes this information, enabling the operator to communicate their intended action or provide corrections. Based on these inputs, the interface can then gener...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• SDK

Human–robot collaboration (HRC) relies on accurate and timely recognition of human intentions to ensure seamless interactions. Among common HRC tasks, human-to-robot object handovers have been studied extensively for planning the robot’s actions during object reception, assuming the human intention for object handover. However, distinguishing handover intentions from other actions has received limited attention. Most research on handovers has focused on visually detecting motion trajectories, which often results in delays or false detections when traject...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

The information symmetry between humans and machines can enhance mutual perception and understanding, leading to more robust cooperation. Intention recognition is a key technology in natural human–machine collaboration (HMC). However, as the complexity of the system increases, the amount of information and the types of tasks become numerous, which leads to continuous dynamic changes in interaction intentions. New sensing technologies such as electroencephalogram (EEG) have provided a continuous and unobtrusive monitoring approach to accurately and effect...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab
• VARs

Extensive previous studies demonstrate that visual saliency prediction significantly reduces bandwidth consumption in immersive communications, which serve as one key application in 6G by providing multi-sensory interactive experiences. Unlike traditional visual saliency prediction models designed for specific scenarios (e.g., visual-only or visual-audio contexts), this paper proposes a general cross-modal saliency prediction method. The proposed method fully exploits inter-modal correlations, and importantly, explores whether incorporating increasing mo...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR

Assessing worker skill is essential for optimizing high-complexity, low-output production tasks that are consequently difficult to automate for increased efficiency over human work. Identifying specific, accessible metrics to identify workers as beginners versus experts may also help design more efficient training regimens, as well as help uncover the determinants of skill. In this study, atemporal (timestamp removed) eye tracking data from 16 subjects performing a soldering task were analyzed using a variety of machine learning models, including k-neare...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Objective: This study aimed to explore the differences in characteristics of scalp aging and visual attention across genders in a Chinese population.Methods: This study recruited 79 Han Chinese participants aged 31-47 years from Shanghai, China. Using a combination of non-invasive instrumental measurements, eye-tracking technology, and subjective questionnaires, we analyzed scalp aging manifestations through three physiological dimensions-barrier function, microecology, and scalp skin color-while examining visual attention patterns toward scalp aging fea...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Urban mental health burdens are increasing, prompting interest in how nearby green spaces aid emotional restoration. Bamboo-dominant green spaces are widespread in East Asia, but evidence connecting their management and structural features to restorative experiences is limited. This study conducted a controlled photo-exposure experiment in Ya’an, China, to examine how bamboo space typology and structural attributes relate to visual attention, affective responses, and short-term physiological recovery. One hundred and twenty participants viewed 50 photogr...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Traditional map interaction methods (such as mouse clicks or touch operations) rely heavily on explicit input, which tends to interrupt users’ spatial cognitive processes and increase their cognitive load. Although eye-tracking technology can capture users’ attention distributions, existing methods generally struggle to infer deep semantic intentions from gaze behaviors and lack the ability to dynamically generate map content on the basis of real-time cognitive states. Therefore, this study proposes a perception-enhanced map interaction framework driven ...Mehr anzeigen

Community pharmacists can play an important role in patient safety by consulting patients on over-the-counter (OTC) medications. Several OTC counseling frameworks have been integrated into pharmacy education to guide pharmacists through these consultations, but limited work has been performed to examine how these frameworks are applied in real-world settings. The objective of this study was to identify the topics discussed during over-the-counter medication consultations and explore how they align with existing counseling frameworks. Participants were re...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Eye movement information has been proven to be a new type of data that can integrate human expert knowledge into intelligent models. However, currently, there is a lack of the eye movement datasets for cross-view matching tasks, especially for the task of street-to-aerial images cross-view matching. In this paper, we introduce an eye movement dataset based on this cross-view matching task, named Eye-CVACT. Five college students with relevant expertise participate in the experiment. We analyze the behavioral data of the subjects and apply this dataset to ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

Conditionally automated vehicles (AVs) allow drivers to divert their attention from the road under specific conditions defined by the Operational Design Domain (ODD) but require drivers to resume manual control when approaching the ODD boundary. In such scheduled takeover scenarios, drivers are afforded more time to restore situation awareness and manage the takeover task at their own pace. This study focuses on a typical ODD exit scenario—freeway exits—and investigates the effectiveness of a multistage takeover request (ToR) design comprising three stag...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Urban green spaces provide nature-like psychological restorative benefits. However, limited by mobility constraints and spatial accessibility, older adults struggle to fully utilize the restorative effects of large-scale landscapes. As an intensive landscape carrier, whether micro-landscapes can achieve nature-like psychological restorative benefits still requires empirical verification. Using eye-tracking combined with the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS), this study adopted a repeated-measures ANOVA design, with different types of community public...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

Despite the widely accepted notion that software metrics like classic McCabe cyclomatic complexity (V(g)) or those provided by tools such as SonarQube (CC Sonar) represent code understandability from the perspective of a typical programmer, the accuracy of these metrics in reflecting perceived code understandability remains uncertain. This paper investigates the complementarity of code complexity metrics using a data-driven approach that incorporates linear and non-linear regression models. To evaluate the complementarity of code metrics, a controlled ex...Mehr anzeigen

Landscape quality significantly impacts residents’ well-being through visual perception, particularly among the elderly who exhibit heightened sensitivity to environmental stimuli. Therefore, this study investigates how landscape configurations influence emotional and physiological responses in older adults under controlled visual conditions. This study selected representative outdoor activity sites in northern Chinese cities and designed five landscape scenarios by adjusting the green coverage ratio (GCR) and landscape composition. Participants (mean ag...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Lab

Traditional time study methods are time-consuming and expensive and require experienced staff. Using a time sampling methodology based on video recordings might be a time-efficient and precise solution. This study scrutinized the accuracy and margin of error for various snapshot lengths and types (fixed and variable) when estimating the operating times of a tree harvester in clearcuts and thinnings of Scots pine stands. The study focused particularly on the impact of type, recognizing its potential to influence the accuracy of the estimates. The study ex...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Semi-automated urban rail transit systems still rely on human intervention during safety-critical events, yet emergency takeover performance has received far less attention than in SAE Level-3 road automation. This study focuses on the reaction phase of emergency takeover, defined as the interval from anomaly onset to the train operator’s first control action. We propose a conditional two-stage evaluation framework that jointly assesses event recognition and control execution quality. A simulation-based experiment was conducted to replicate GoA2 operatin...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Flotation workshop ventilation control virtual monitoring system alarm interfaces need to adapt to high-dynamic and high-interference industrial environments, while traditional interfaces have information overload and chaotic layout, leading to excessive cognitive load of operators and low alarm response efficiency, which makes it urgent to optimize the interface design. This study constructed a scenario characteristics-cognitive requirements-interface design coupling model, and conducted a 3 (alarm position) × 2 (display form) × 2 (target quantity) with...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• ErgoLab

Color is an important attribute in visual interaction. When visualizing binary classification data, colors with opposite affective valence are often used simultaneously—either intentionally or unintentionally. In such cases, whether the affective response evoked in visual interaction maintains clearly dual-polar (either positive or negative) remains unknown. In this article, we propose a user experiment using binary classification maps with two color combinations (similar vs. opposite affective valences) as materials. Sixty participants completed the exp...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab

BackgroundThis study aimed to evaluate a perceptual learning module (PLM) for improving visual diagnostic skills among novice students and to investigate the underlying cognitive mechanisms using eye-tracking.MethodsIn this mixed-design study, 63 novice optometry students (Year 1 and 2) were randomly assigned into one of three groups: perceptual learning (PL), perceptual learning with enhanced-contrast (PLC), or a no-training control. A benchmark group of 21 senior students (Year 5) with formal clinical training was also recruited. The PL and PLC groups ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion

Background: Accurate medication dispensing is essential for patient safety. Electronic prescription (EP) systems are effective because they support  the cognitive functions of pharmacists. Eye tracking provides rapid, objective insights into the visual attention and cognitive engagement of pharmacists interacting with EP interfaces, offering details unmatched by other methods. Objective: To assess prescription screening practice of pharmacists by analyzing their visual attention (fixation duration, scanpath length, and heatmaps) and cognitive engagement ...Mehr anzeigen

The paper aims at improving the efficiency of Artificial Intelligence implementation as part of modern computer-aided design systems. In order to optimize the process of human-computer interaction and stimulate engineering creativity, there is proposed a model for marking-up engineering data based on a concept of “affordance”. As part of the study, an original experiment was conducted, which consisted of determining the functional purpose of vintage and antique devices based on their images by technical specialists, representatives of related professions...Mehr anzeigen

Background: Emergency rescuers frequently carry heavy equipment for extended periods, making musculoskeletal disorders a major occupational concern. Loading type and road slope play important roles in inducing physical fatigue; however, the assessment of physical fatigue under these conditions remains limited. Aim: This study aims to investigate physical fatigue under different loading types and road slope conditions using both electromyography (EMG) and eye movement metrics. In particular, this work focuses on eye movement metrics as a non-contact data ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Colorectal cancer prevention depends on accurate detection and complete resection of adenomas. Optimal visual strategy remains undefined. We investigated whether guiding the gaze toward the periphery of the screen could enhance adenoma detection.METHODS: This multicenter, randomized controlled trial was conducted across 4 institutions between September 2024 and July 2025. Individuals aged 40 to 90 years were randomized to the intervention or control group. In the intervention group, real-time eye-tracking feedback prompted endoscopists...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spark

Process models support analysis, design, implementation, and operation of information systems and must therefore remain understandable for diverse process stakeholders. Numerous metrics estimate model complexity, yet their ability to predict the mental effort (i.e., cognitive load) users actually experience is still unclear. This study addresses that gap with a controlled eye-tracking experiment involving 27 participants and process models that systematically vary in essential complexity (logic) and accidental complexity (layout). Some of these models co...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X3-120

The ability for students to effectively adapt to new programming languages is a desirable skill that is useful for careers demanding rapid adoption of different languages. This study aims to measure the cognitive load required to generalize programming skills from one language to another across three different tasks: code comprehension, syntactic debugging, and semantic debugging. Participants with basic background in either Java or Python (but not both) were asked to explain a given code segment or identify the syntactic/semantic bug for code written in...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

With the development of the manufacturing industry, the demand for human-computer interaction in CNC machine tools has continuously increased. This study aims to use FMEA (Failure Modes and Effects Analysis) and QFD(Quality Function Deployment) methods to optimize the design of machine tool control panels, enhancing user experience and operational efficiency. The study explores an improved design of the machine tool control panel using the FMEA-QFD approach. Through FMEA and QFD analysis, priority design features were identified, including digital keys, ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

In multi-screen personal learning spaces, prolonged exposure to electronic screens and complex lighting environments can worsen students’ visual fatigue. However, existing research on classroom lighting optimization primarily focuses on traditional or single-screen environments. This study investigates the relationship between environmental colour and students’ visual fatigue within multi-screen personal learning spaces. Six side wall colours were tested in the simulation. Eye movement data were recorded using the Tobii Pro Glasses 2 eye tracker, and the...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Man–machine hybrid interaction is critical for future fighter cockpits. This study proposes a novel multimodal man–machine hybrid interaction model integrating gesture, speech, eye-movement, and brain-computer interface technologies. A feasibility verification experiment (n = 20) was conducted, comparing this model against traditional mouse/keyboard controls in navigation and precision strike tasks. Results demonstrate that the multimodal model significantly improves task efficiency in specific tasks and enhances the overall user experience by significan...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this methods article is to highlight applications of eye-tracking in pharmacy research. This article synthesizes methodological insights and lessons learned from applying eye-tracking across three distinct pharmacy research contexts. The article discusses key considerations for researchers when planning to apply this novel methodology.METHODS: Case one used eye-tracking to examine how older adults interacted with Senior Safe, a community pharmacy redesign promoting safer over-the-counter medication selection, in a naturalistic ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Eliciting evolutionary requirements is essential for the continuous improvement of software systems. Traditional approaches rely on user feedback from forums and social media; however, these methods often suffer from low engagement rates and subjective biases. In contrast, user interaction behavior data offers more objective and comprehensive insights into user needs throughout task execution. Despite its advantages, the ambiguous relationship between user behaviors and requirements presents significant challenges for behavior-driven requirement inferenc...Mehr anzeigen

Traditional CGH algorithms often face a trade-off between computational efficiency and reconstruction fidelity. In this study, we propose a hybrid hologram synthesis framework that combines geometric and physical optics to generate phase-only holograms for SLM. A freeform surface obtained from geometric optics provides a smooth continuous phase initialization for the iterative CGH solver, which substantially reduces the number of required iterations. We further improve the SGD-based optimization by introducing an adaptive step size factor and explicit ph...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30

The study examined the impact of mind wandering (MW) on situation awareness (SA) under varying task difficulties and pinpointed the sensitive SA indicators. 43 participants completed the shearer status monitoring task under simple and complex tasks. It collected operational performance, SAGAT, SART, eye movements, and EEG data, followed by linear mixed models analysis. The results showed that: (1) During the simple task, MW with meta-awareness led to higher performance and SA compared to MW without meta-awareness. In the complex task, SA of MW without me...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii Pro Screen-based

Effective assessment of mental workload (MWL) is crucial for reducing human errors during commissioning operations in nuclear power plants (NPPs), but remains a significant challenge. This study investigated the sensitivity of multimodal physiological measures to MWL changes during commissioning operations, and evaluated their effectiveness in MWL modeling using machine learning techniques. Physiological signals were collected during operators’ commissioning operations with varying difficulty levels, and used to build uni-modal, dual-modal and multi-moda...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Monitoring the fatigue state of tractor drivers by fusing multimodal signals—including electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (ECG), and eye-tracking metrics (EM)—is critical for ensuring safety in agricultural production. However, under real-world farming conditions, varying task loads (e.g., plowing, seeding) induce physiological responses that are highly similar to those of genuine fatigue, creating strongly correlated structured noise. Existing decoding algorithms tend to overlook this confounding effect, resulting in insufficient robustne...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Studio
• VARs

Most of the information we gather from our environment is obtained from sight, hence, visual evaluation is vital for assessing products. However, designers have traditionally relied on self-report questionnaires for this purpose, which have proven to be insufficient in some cases. Consequently, physiological measures are being employed to gain a deeper understanding of the cognitive and perceptual processes involved in product evaluation, and, thanks to their integration in Virtual Reality (VR) headsets, they have become a powerful tool for virtual proto...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii VR

Deficiencies in the usability of transport ventilators may lead to operating errors and patient harm. Intuitively operable devices and optimized ergonomics can reduce cognitive workload and critical events. In order to identify shortcomings of specific devices we compared the user interfaces of four modern transport ventilators. We hypothesized that the task-specific usability of user interfaces differs between transport ventilators. Therefore, we investigated the usability of modern transport ventilators from four manufacturers by means of subjective an...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

BACKGROUND: Most modern electrocardiographic (ECG) monitors include visual alarm cues to flag abnormalities. Whether these cues consistently improve nurses' recognition of abnormal data remains uncertain.AIM: The primary aim is to examine the effects of alarm cues on ICU nurses' behavioural performance when identifying abnormal physiological parameters while using bedside vital-sign monitors. The secondary aim was to investigate how alarm cues influence nurses' visual attention patterns.STUDY DESIGN: A within-subjects experiment with ICU nurses using a s...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

ABSTRACT This study explores how environmental design elements in library spaces influence human psychophysiological responses using virtual reality (VR). Thirty participants experienced VR simulations of library reading areas, with variations in wall color, flooring material, and lighting intensity, whereas electroencephalography (EEG) and galvanic skin response (GSR) measured physiological reactions alongside subjective ratings. Moderate lighting (20,000–30,000 cd) minimized arousal and supported attention, while white walls enhanced relaxation via inc...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR
• VARs

In age-friendly furniture design, the visual characteristics of material surfaces play a crucial role in shaping the usage experience and preferences of elderly users. In response to the application requirements of decorative materials for furniture surfaces, this study focuses on polypropylene (PP) films, with the objective of investigating the visual perceptual preferences of elderly users concerning the surface color and glossiness attributes of these films. An eye-tracking experiment was initially conducted to identify color preferences among elderly...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro 1750 / 2150
• ErgoLab

To comprehensively examine how visual guidance installations within expressway tunnel mid-sections affect drivers' visual behavior, this investigation deliberately prioritized the tunnel's central segment as the core analytical zone. Our experimental design featured two contrasting conditions: a baseline configuration completely lacking visual guidance elements, and an intervention configuration incorporating a multi-component guidance system—comprising raised pavement markers, retroreflective delineators, tunnel wall rings, and continuous waistline mark...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Exposure to nature is known to promote attention restoration, yet high-rise residential environments often limit residents’ opportunities for direct contact with urban green spaces (UGS). Drawing on Attention Restoration Theory (ART), this study compared the restorative effects of close-up view (CV) and overlooking view (OV) of UGS. We collected self-report data (N = 326) using the Perceived Restorativeness Scale and eye-tracking data (N = 100) while participants viewed photographs of eight UGS locations from two heights. The findings indicate that OV mo...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

Industry 5.0 calls for human‑centric, resilient, and sustainability‑driven production ecosystems where people and intelligent technologies collaborate to create value. Cognitive Assistance Systems (CAS), intended to support operators by guiding their actions and decisions, are central to this vision. Yet, their design and evaluation remain fragmented. This paper introduces a multidimensional framework that maps CAS onto five analysis dimensions: Cognitive Functions, Autonomy, Adaptivity, Interaction Modality, and Portability. Each dimension is operationa...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Machine Learning (ML) models often rely on datasets, but acquiring real-world data can be impractical due to ethical, safety, or cost constraints. Simulators have emerged as viable alternatives for generating controlled, high-quality training data, particularly in high-risk applications such as autonomous driving, robotic surgery, and emergency response. In this context, virtual reality (VR) presents a promising medium for training AI systems, especially when dealing with human-computer interaction (HCI) scenarios that require physiological signal interp...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii VR

This exploratory pilot study (n = 10) investigates visitor behaviour in a salon hang display at the State Library of New South Wales using mobile eye-tracking and interviews with ten participants. Results indicate that the dense display overwhelms viewers and shortens viewing times, while the absence of wall labels creates frustration and a desire for at least basic information about the artworks. These findings highlight the tension between the institutional goal of promoting sustained attention and visitor behaviour in visually saturated environments. ...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Industrial set-up has long been a focus of scientific research, largely because it entails substantial cost overhead for manufacturing companies. Whilst various efforts have been made to optimise this process, mainly in terms of time and other resources needed to accomplish it, to date little can be found in the HCI literature about how digital technologies can support workers who engage in it. This article sets out to addresses this gap in the literature by introducing a Design Case Study carried out for the conception of a CPPS (Cyber-physical Producti...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• Tobii Pro Lab

Since almost the onset of computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW), the community has been concerned with how expertise sharing can be supported in different settings. Here, the complex handling of machines based on experience and knowledge is increasingly becoming a challenge. In our study, we investigated expertise sharing in a medium-sized manufacturing company in an effort to support the fostering of hardware-based expertise sharing by using augmented reality (AR) to ‘retrofit’ machines. We, therefore, conducted a preliminary empirical study to und...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Cyber-physical systems (CPS) are currently attracting a great deal of attention as a part of the discourse surrounding the fourth industrial revolution. Thus far, the chief focus has been upon complex architectures for supply chain-wide data exchange between intelligent machines. Here, however, we take a very different tack by examining the support CPS may offer for the exchange and acquisition of knowledge-intensive human practices in the context of manual set-up processes on modern production machines. The paper offers contributions to both CSCW and th...Mehr anzeigen

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2