Eye Tracking in Psychology and Neuroscience Research: Q3 2025

While multimodal glossing is supported by theories like Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, its effectiveness remains debated due to potential cognitive demands. This study examined how repeated exposures, working memory (WM), and gloss lookup behaviors influence vocabulary retention. Ninety-six Chinese high school students were randomly assigned to four conditions (L2 textual gloss, pictorial gloss, pictorial plus L2 textual gloss, and no gloss). Results showed that (a) repeated exposures to target words enhanced vocabulary lear...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

BACKGROUND: Although extensive research has investigated attentional biases based on the looming vulnerability model of anxiety, the characteristics of attentional biases in individuals with looming cognitive styles (LCS) remain incompletely elucidated. No prior eye-tracking studies have examined the spatiotemporal dynamics of their threat-related attentional preferences.Artificial IntelligenceM: To investigate the nature and temporal pattern of attentional biases toward threat stimuli in individuals exhibiting different levels of LCS using eye-tracking ...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Lab

Professional vision is an important situation-specific competence for teachers. Particularly for classroom management, a good learning environment requires early recognition of potential disruptions, the correct interpretation of such situations, and fair, appropriate consequences. Group associations can influence perceptual processes and, especially in complex, dynamic situations, (pre-service) teachers risk misinterpreting behavior by following implicit associations rather than actual behaviors. The connection between associations and perceptual proces...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

News consumers prefer to access information from trusted sources but may also access news from a distrusted source in exceptional circumstances when the content of that news report is highly unexpected. That demonstrates that expectancy violations are highly important in media bias perceptions. Additionally, the decision to access news from distrusted sources may not be an easy decision. Therefore, this chapter investigates whether it took more cognitive effort to select a news headline from a distrusted source over a trusted one with the use of eye trac...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30

Eye tracking, a fundamental process in gaze analysis, involves measuring the point of gaze or eye motion. It is crucial in numerous applications, including human–computer interaction (HMI), education, health care, and virtual reality. This study delves into eye-tracking concepts, terminology, performance parameters, applications, and techniques, focusing on modern and efficient approaches such as video-oculography (VOG)-based systems, deep learning models for gaze estimation, wearable and cost-effective devices, and integration with virtual/augmented rea...Show more

A multimodal Ganzfeld (MMGF) consists of homogeneous stimulation in both the visual and auditory modalities. Exposure to this unique perceptual environment can elicit the awareness of hallucinatory percepts. The nature of these hallucinatory percepts, and specifically the frequency of visual, auditory and multisensorial hallucinations, remains unclear. In this study, an MMGF refers to the stimulation paradigm itself. The perceptual experiences elicited, however, can be unimodal (occurring in one modality), multisensory (simultaneous but thematically unre...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• SDK

Aesthetic experience may foster positive connections between visitors and heritage sites. However, the way people engage with and esthetically experience archaeological heritage is not yet well understood. To address this gap, in the present on-site study, we explored how viewers’ cultural backgrounds might influence their aesthetic experience of Christian medieval Nubian wall paintings. Specifically, Sudanese and Western subjects were asked to view 17 paintings from the Monastery on Kom H in Old Dongola (Sudan) while their eye movements and fixations we...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

BackgroundAlcohol use disorder (AUD) is accompanied by cognitive impairments, including attentional bias towards cues linked to alcohol. Most studies on attentional biases have focused on participants in intoxicated states, with limited research on differences between chronic and occasional users. This study aimed to examine attentional biases in chronic alcohol users compared to occasional users using eye-tracking.MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, 71 male participants (36 chronic users and 35 occasional users) were recruited from a tertiary care cen...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

While early Linguistic Landscape research concerns the semantic analysis of signs, contemporary studies investigate also the human visual attention of the LL. Three prior studies (Seifi, 2015; Vingron et al., 2017; Wei & Qin, 2023) investigate how language users look at the LL in a laboratory setting. However, research on bilinguals’ visual attention towards naturally occurring street signs remains limited. This study addresses this gap using a mobile eye-tracker to examine how bilinguals look at public signs, comparing Polish na...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

To localize tactile events in external space, our perceptual system must transform skin-based locations into an external frame of reference. Such a transformation has been reported to involve reference frames that are unrelated to tactile sensations, such as eye position, which supports the idea that a visual reference frame is a single unified frame of reference for transforming spatial information from all sensory modalities. However, it remains unclear how tactile events are perceptually localized during saccadic eye movements. In this study, we prese...Show more

• Tobii VR
• SDK

Audio description (AD) is a pre-recorded verbal commentary that describes visual – and occasionally ambiguous auditory – elements of audiovisual (AV) cultural products. While AD is primarily designed for audiences with visual impairments, its potential benefits for other populations have recently attracted scholarly attention. This study examines the use of AD for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), exploring how it may enhance their information processing by delivering content through both visual and auditory channels. The study involved 33 Po...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

Artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence) is increasingly integrating into high-risk domains where error consequences vary. Understanding how consequences affect trust in Artificial Intelligence is important for safe collaboration. In an Artificial Intelligence-assisted experiment, 35 participants completed trials under low- and high-consequence conditions. Eye tracking, trust ratings, and performance data were collected. Under high-consequence conditions, participants spent less time fixating on Artificial Intelligence’s correct suggestions. Par...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

In this exploratory study, we investigated rater cognition in English–Chinese translation assessment, drawing on think-aloud, eye-tracking, and interview data. We designed a 3 × 2 × 2 experiment in which experienced raters assessed eighteen renditions of three levels of quality for each translation direction, using a Likert-type scale or analytic rubric scale. We found that: (a) the raters heeded meaning transfer more frequently than other contents; (b) they utilized a variety of processing actions, but a core subset involving eight actio...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

In this poster, we investigate attentional behavior in youths with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) using the wearable eye-tracker Tobii Pro Glasses 3. The experiment involved 38 participants, 19 with ASD and 19 with typical development, who described both social and non-social images while their eye movements were recorded. Results revealed that participants with ASD accepted the device, demonstrating its feasibility for future use. Compared to the control group, individuals with ASD showed reduced focus on social images. These findings highlight potentia...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Eye movements have been shown to reflect information during reading. Nevertheless, automatic identification of difficult areas of text based on eye tracking is still an understudied area. This paper focuses on natural eye movement events and proposes a framework for extracting difficult text regions based on eye-tracking patterns. The framework collects users’ reading eye-movement data using a head-mounted eye tracker, predicts fixations associated with difficult text regions, and performs text matching to accurately locate areas of reading difficulty. E...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Central questions in metacognitive research are how reliably people’s confidence reflect success and how mental effort is regulated during cognitive tasks. Ackerman’s Bird’s-Eye View of Cue Integration methodology exposed confidence biases in a geometric problem-solving task. We replicated one experiment, incorporating eye-tracking to expose additional confidence predictors and insights into mental effort regulation. Fifty-four university students performed the task wearing eye-tracking glasses. The original confidence biases were replicated. Notably, th...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

While blink analysis was traditionally conducted within vision research, recent studies suggest that Blink Research might reflect a more general cognitive strategy for resource allocation, including with auditory tasks, but its use within the fields of Audiology or Psychoacoustics remains scarce and its interpretation largely speculative. It is hypothesized that as listening conditions become more difficult, the number of Blink Research would decrease, especially during stimulus presentation, because it reflects a window of alertness. In experiment 1, 21...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

INTRODUCTION: Schizophrenia (SCZ) spectrum is characterised by aberrant processing of social cues. However, little is known about the specific stages of visual attention and their connection to subclinical and clinical symptoms in psychosis. This study aimed to investigate the visual processing of social and non-social parts of naturalistic scenes, and its link to positive and negative symptoms.METHODS: Employing eye-tracking and a free-viewing paradigm, we tested 27 individuals with SCZ and 28 matched controls and compared them on measures capturing bot...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Lab

Although phasic alertness generally benefits cognitive performance, it often increases the impact of distracting information, resulting in impaired decision-making and cognitive control. However, it is unclear why phasic alertness has these negative effects. Here, we present a novel, biologically-informed account, according to which phasic alertness generates a transient, evidence-independent input to the decision process. This shortens overall response times, but also amplifies competition between evidence accumulators, thus slowing down decision-making...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• SDK

Decision-making can rely on two mental strategies—synthetic (a top-down process in which decisions are made by evaluating the overall situation) or analytic (a bottom-up driven process guided by a detailed examination of individual elements)—following opposite cognitive pathways, shaping how individuals process information and make choices. This study investigates the behavioral and neural correlates of analytic and synthetic decision-making strategies. A total of 30 participants read five real-life scenarios and chose between two alternatives representi...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

The “generation effect” is a phenomenon whereby people have better memory for information that is self-generated compared to information that is passively read. Throughout the years mtheories have been proposed to explain this effect, one of which is the “mental effort theory,” which suggests that more mental effort is allocated to self-generated information, meaning that the act of generating information inherently requires more mental effort than processing existing information. In a series of four paired-associates memory experiments, Pupil Researchlo...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300

In response to the growing data needs of researchers, data retrieval systems have emerged as extensions of literature retrieval systems, often adopting brand extension strategies that replicate the user interfaces of established literature retrieval platforms. This design similarity seeks to leverage familiarity to cultivate positive first impressions, resulting in user interfaces that include both high goal-relevance areas (focused on data discovery) and low goal-relevance areas (modeled after literature retrieval). Without effective attention control, ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

The aim of this study was to examine visual focus, attention processes, and physiological parameters of air pistol shooters under different pressure conditions. Thirty-two (n = 9 elite, n = 11 intermediate and n = 12 novice) air pistol shooters performed 10 shots in both control condition and pressure condition. Quiet eye (QE) duration, Pupil Research size, skin conductance (SC) and heart rate (HR) were recorded simultaneously during shooting. SC and HR values were significantly higher in pressure condition compared to control condition; however, QE dura...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• Tobii Pro Lab
• VARs

We report on two experiments using Pupil Researchlometry to explore decision-making. In Experiment 1, participants observed a static image of the game. In Experiment 2, participants interacted with a computer agent in a cooperative game. A Tobii Pro Fusion running at 120Hz tracked participants’ eyes. Ten participants completed nine trials in each experiment. Percentage change in Pupil Research diameter from a baseline, in Experiment 1, is similar for both targets, suggesting that participants treat low and high rewards equally. In experiment 2, there is ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

Individuals with homonymous hemianopia (HH) may benefit from adopting compensatory crossing and scanning strategies to successfully cross streets. In this study, we explored the effect of HH on street crossing outcomes, crossing behavior and scanning behavior in a virtual environment. Individuals with real HH (N = 18), unimpaired vision (N = 18), and simulated HH (N = 18) crossed a virtual street displayed through a head-mounted display. Virtual cars approached from both directions, traveling at a speed of either 30 or 50 km/h. Participants' crossing and...Show more

• Tobii VR
• SDK

The lexicalization of emojis reflects the dynamic evolutionary characteristics of the linguistic symbol system in the digital age. The influence of usage frequency and the different functions of emojis in sentences on this process is also a research topic worthy of exploration. This study employed eye-tracking technology, with 98 native Chinese speakers as participants, and selected Chinese sentences as experimental stimuli to compare the processing differences of emojis with different frequencies (high frequency and low frequency) and different function...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

Visual attention mechanisms help organisms prioritize evolutionarily relevant stimuli, like threats and mating opportunities. Individuals may, therefore, attend to specific facial features. In humans, it has consistently been shown that secondary sexual traits and attractive faces capture and hold attention. By contrast, evidence for such biases in nonhuman primates, especially great apes, remains scarce. To address this gap, we conducted two eye‐tracking experiments with four zoo‐housed Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), a species characterized by ext...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

Motor brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) decode neural signals to help people with paralysis move and communicate. Even with important advances in the past two decades, BCIs face a key obstacle to clinical viability: BCI performance should strongly outweigh costs and risks. To significantly increase the BCI performance, we use shared autonomy, where artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence) copilots collaborate with BCI users to achieve task goals. We demonstrate this Artificial Intelligence-BCI in a non-invasive BCI system decoding electroencephal...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• SDK

Atypical social attention is a feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), yet this has not yet been studied during toy-free naturalistic parent-infant interactions in infants at elevated likelihood of developing ADHD (EL-ADHD). We coded mutual gaze from caregiver-infant free-play videos recorded at 4-7 months in infants with typical likelihood (TL; n = 37), elevated likelihood of ASD (EL-ASD; n = 55), ADHD (EL-ADHD; n = 13) or both (EL-ASD + ADHD; n = 13). Face-orienting responses were measured using an...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• SDK

Decades of research have highlighted the important role of joint attention in early cultural learning. However, most previous studies focused on a limited range of joint attention settings involving the learner's first-person participation in joint visual attention, characterized by eye contact and triadic gaze following. This has created an incomplete picture, tending to neglect the diversity in which infants experience social connectedness in their daily lives. To deepen our understanding of the multifaceted nature of joint attention, this study invest...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

Purpose The autistic-developed monotropism account suggests autism is characterised by hyperfocus towards interests, although hyperfocus research has not explored associations among self-/caregiver-report and lab-based measures. Other findings suggest autistic attention has an enhanced capacity and/or is unusually prone to involuntary capture. This study used questionnaires and lab-based tasks to investigate autistic attention and probe its relations to inattention/distractibility, sensory experiences, and anxiety. Methods 18 autistic and 22 comparison a...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

Introduction: Narrative, or storytelling, ability is a well-documented area of difficulty in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and is an important skill that is related to social-communicative success. Evidence also demonstrates subtle narrative differences among first-degree relatives of autistic individuals, including parents (ASD parents) and siblings (ASD siblings), suggesting narrative ability may reflect genetic influences related to ASD. Less structured contexts, such as free form narrative retellings (i.e., without scaffolding via visual aids), requ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Sticky

Current research strives to investigate cognitive processes under natural conditions. Virtual reality and EEG are promising techniques combining naturalistic settings with close experimental control. However, mquestions and technical challenges remain, e.g., are Saccade Research onsets a suitable replacement of fixation onsets as key events in continuous gaze trajectories ( Amme et al., 2024), and consequently, can VR capture differences across different stimulus categories associated with varying Saccade Research durations? To address both questions, we...Show more

• Tobii VR
• LSL
• SDK

Information processing tasks involve complex cognitive mechanisms that are shaped by various factors, including individual goals, prior experience, and system environments. Understanding such behaviors requires a sophisticated and personalized data capture of how one interacts with modern information systems (e.g., web search engines). Passive sensors, such as wearables, capturing physiological and behavioral data, have the potential to provide solutions in this context. This paper presents a novel dataset, SenseSeek, designed to evaluate the effectivene...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• SDK

Violation of expectation (VOE) paradigms are key to understanding infants' early knowledge. In VOE paradigms, infants are presented sequences of events either according with or violating regularities of their physical or social environment. Infants' violated expectations may result in a surprise response, such as longer looking times or specific neural correlates. There is an increasing interest in utilizing infants' Pupil Research dilation as an index of their surprise. However, to date, no study has systematically examined infants' Pupil Researchlary r...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

OBJECTIVE: There is a need for effective cognitive assessment tools to evaluate the development of very young children in resource-limited low- and middle-income country settings. Our objective was to evaluate the field usability of a computer-based attention test and its concurrent validity with a caregiver-reported screener of neurodevelopment in rural, Ecuadorian children.METHOD: To assess a computer-based attention test in a resource-limited setting, 41 Ecuadorian children between 2 and 4 years of age were evaluated once with the Early Childhood Test...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• Tobii Pro Lab

Stress is a major public health problem calling for scalable interventions. Physical activity (PA) and slow-paced breathing (SPB) can reduce stress, both by modulating cardiac parasympathetic activity. Given their shared target but different mechanisms, combining SPB and PA could enhance their stress-reducing effects. This study therefore explores whether SPB (vs control breathing at a faster rate) after PA increases the impact of PA on psychophysiological indices of emotional reactivity and psychosocial stress reactivity and recovery. In a crossover ran...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Open Source Application

Driver Situation Awareness (SA) is crucial for the safety of conditional autonomous driving, posing a significant human factors challenge for the automotive industry in its pursuit of intelligent driving systems. To guide future automotive system design and enhance Human–Machine Interaction (HMI), the present paper presents an interdisciplinary solution that achieves the assessment and recognition of driver SA by deeply integrating cognitive psychology theories and machine learning techniques. First, a takeover driving study was designed and conducted du...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Eye tracking technology is frequently utilized to diagnose eye and neurological disorders, assess sleep and fatigue, study human visual perception, and enable novel gaze-based interaction methods. However, traditional eye tracking methodologies are constrained by bespoke hardware that is often cumbersome to wear, complex to apply, and demands substantial computational resources. To overcome these limitations, we investigated the application of Electrooculography (EOG) eye tracking using 14 electrodes positioned around the ears, integrated into a custom-b...Show more

• Tobii Sticky
• SDK

Efficient and effective teaming between humans and autonomous systems requires the establishment and maintenance of trust to maximize team task performance. Despite advances in autonomous systems, human expertise remains critical in tasks fraught with deviations from procedures or plans that cannot be pre-programmed. As autonomous systems become more sophisticated, they will possess the ability to positively influence interactions with their human partners, provided the autonomous systems have a real-time estimation of their human partner's cognitive sta...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• LSL
• SDK

Numbers present persistent challenges in interpreting, yet cognitive mechanisms underlying notation-specific processing remain underexplored. While eye-tracking studies in visually-assisted simultaneous interpreting have advanced number research, they predominantly examine Arabic numerals in non-Chinese contexts-neglecting notation diversity increasingly prevalent in computer-assisted interpreting systems where Automatic Speech Recognition outputs vary across languages. Addressing these gaps, this study investigated how number notation (Arabic digits vs....Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Developmental studies have adopted preferential-looking paradigms to investigate infant interest in emotional face stimuli. However, because of the attention-grabbing nature of threatening stimuli, research has reported inconsistent results regarding infants' fixation on happy and angry faces. A recent value-based framework of social looking behavior suggested that infants' looking behavior depends on the value of looking (i.e., the expected reward value of a specific looking behavior). Using anticipatory-looking tests alongside preferential-looking test...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii ClearView
• Tobii Pro Studio

Artificial IntelligenceM: To examine visual engagement to social stimuli and response to joint attention in young children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) and typically developing peers (controls).METHOD: Forty-five preschool children were studied cross-sectionally (mean age [SD] = 4 years 3 months [10 months]), 25 with NF1 and 20 typically developing controls. Participants passively viewed two eye-tracking paradigms. The first measured participants' time to first social fixation and duration of attention to social stimuli. The second assessed respon...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

This study examines whether integrating sports and arts interventions enhances response joint attention (RJA) in children with mild autism and provides insights for diversifying intervention strategies for autism. 2024.6–2024.12,Twenty-four children with autism, aged 6–12 years, were recruited from an autism association in Anhui Province, China. Participants were randomized using a computer-generated sequence (allocation concealed from assessors) assigned to an experimental group (n = 12) or a control group (n = 12). Over 12 weeks, the experimental group...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Accurate classification of mathematical difficulty is essential for quantifying mental workload (MWL) in cognitive research. This study introduces a novel method that defines difficulty based on the number of interim values stored during each stage of verbal arithmetic. Twenty-six participants completed six levels of math tasks, with task performance and eye-tracking data (fixations and Saccade Researchs) collected to evaluate the framework. Performance results showed significantly higher accuracy in Levels 1 and 2 and meaningful differences between Leve...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Threat-relevance theory suggests that gaze direction determines the self-relevance of facial threats. Indeed, angry eye-contact is a more relevant threat compared to its counterpart with averted gaze. Similarly, fearful eye-contact is not a threat to the observer, but averted fearful gaze can signal a relevant threat nearby. Following evidence that amygdala-reactivity to self-relevant threat depends on coarse visual processing, we investigate whether self-relevant threat attracts attention due to processing of low spatial frequency information via periph...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

Preparatory reading—the phase between a translator’s initial reading of the source text and the production of the first word of the target text—remains underexplored despite its crucial role in both sight (SiT) and written translation (WT). This study examined preparatory reading patterns of 32 student translators, focusing on the effects of translation mode (SiT vs. WT) and direction (L1-to-L2 vs. L2-to-L1). Translators’ attention allocation, cognitive effort, and reading speed were measured using preparatory reading duration, average fixation duration,...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Studio
• Open Source Application

Acute alcohol consumption is known to impair visual perception, yet the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Visual perception is influenced by visual attention, which comprises two distinct components: endogenous (voluntary) and exogenous (involuntary) attention. This study investigated how a moderate alcohol dose alters attentional modulation of visual perception. Participants performed an orientation discrimination task, reporting the tilt of a peripheral Gabor patch target. Valid, neutral, or invalid precues-central (endogenous) or periphe...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

Examination of the effectiveness of an attention intervention using a randomized controlled trial for toddlers with suspected or confirmed autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Data was collected from Alberta, Ontario, and Nova Scotia, Canada between February 2018 and February 2020 (halted due to COVID‐19 pandemic). Participants were 35 toddlers randomized to the attention condition (age at start: 25.49 + 3.91 months; 29 boys; mother’s ethnicity: 65% white) and 34 toddlers randomized to a control condition. (age at start: 26.32 + 3.55 months; 24 boys; mother’s...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Sticky
• SDK

In daily conversations, people integrate multimodal cues from faces and adapt their gaze patterns to enhance comprehension according to the situation. Here we used eye-tracking to explore whether autistic individuals can adjust their face-viewing patterns flexibly when speech audio and visual information are asynchronous, with a primary focus on preschool-aged children. Participants from preschool cohort, including 72 autistic and 57 non-autistic individuals aged 3–6 years, watched videos of an actress speaking in either temporal synchrony or asynchrony ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Studio

Background: Research shows deficiencies in social abilities in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are related to impaired Theory of Mind (ToM), further negatively impacted by language impairment. Both challenges are especially pronounced in rural populations. Given that ~25-35% of children with ASD are minimally verbal or nonspeaking, we employed a low-verbal ToM task, using eye tracking to measure attention, to better represent ASD population for ToM evaluation. Methods: Colle et al.’s (2007) low-verbal ToM task was adapted as 26 15-60 second videos, ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

In addition to speech intelligibility, listening effort has emerged as a critical indicator of hearing performance. It can be defined as the effort experienced or invested in solving an auditory task. Subjective, behavioral, and physiological methods have been employed to assess listening effort. While previous studies have focused predominantly evaluated listening effort at clearly audible levels, such as in speech-in-noise conditions, we present findings from a study investigating listening effort for soft speech in quiet. Twenty young adults with norm...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• SDK

In dialogue interpreting (DI), trust is considered a prerequisite for mutual understanding. Clients must trust interpreters’ professional competence, while interpreters rely on clients to recognise their professional role and engage cooperatively. Moments of interpreter-initiated repair potentially threaten interpreters’ professional face, impacting trust building. Drawing on a micro-analytical, interactional framework, this study investigates reciprocal trust by analysing how interpreters defend their professional face and how clients sustain this. Give...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

It is important to investigate perception in the context of natural behaviour in order to reach a holistic account of how sensory processes are coordinated with actions. In particular, the effect of walking upon perceptual and cognitive functions has recently been investigated in the context of how common voluntary actions may dynamically impact upon visual detection. This work has revealed that walking can enhance peripheral visual processing, and that during walking, performance on a visual detection task alternates through good and bad periods within ...Show more

• Tobii VR
• SDK

This study investigates prediction based on verb semantics in a Turkish monolingual comprehension task in professional and student Turkish (A)–English (B) interpreters. Predictive eye movements were compared between the two groups to examine potential differences in the size of the semantic prediction effect. In addition, the participants’ working memory capacity was measured to see whether working memory facilitates prediction and whether this facilitatory effect differs between the two groups. We found a stronger semantic prediction eff...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

Visually searching for verbal information is a complex activity for young readers. An eye-tracking experiment was conducted to investigate whether preactivation of different word-processing pathways by means of semantic or perceptual induction tasks could help children aged 9 to 11 to search for answers to questions in short texts (about 150 words). The type of questions asked (surface vs. inferential) and the nature of the induction tasks (semantic vs. perceptual) were manipulated. In addition, the quality of students’ lexical representations was assess...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

Research suggests that presenting an action via multimodal stimulation (verbal and visual) enhances its perception. To highlight this, in most studies, assertive instructions are generally presented before the occurrence of the visual subevent(s). However, verbal instructions need not always be assertive; they can also include negation to contrast the present event with a prior one, thereby facilitating processing—a phenomenon known as contextual facilitation. In our study, we investigated whether using negation to guide an action sequence facilitates ac...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Lab

The rising prevalence of autism spectrum disorder, coupled with limited professional resources, highlights the urgency of developing efficient diagnostic tools. While standardized assessments exist, identifying subtle communication deficits, especially during multimodal interactions, remains time-consuming and prone to human error. To address this, we propose an automated behavior analysis framework that aims to support clinicians by accurately detecting both verbal and non-verbal communication markers. Specifically, we put forth a composite artificial i...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses

IntroductionThe development of virtual reality (VR) films requires novel editing strategies to optimize narrative cognition in immersive environments. While traditional film editing guides attention through controlled sequences of shots, the interactive nature of VR disrupts linear storytelling, challenging creators to balance emotional experience and spatial coherence. By combining eye-tracking technology with neuroscientific findings, this study aims to investigate how different editing techniques in virtual reality (VR) films affect viewers' narrative...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR

BackgroundPeople with Williams syndrome (WS) face challenges in various areas of cognitive processing, including attention. Previous studies suggest that these challenges are particularly pronounced when disengagement of attention from a previously attended stimulus is required, as compared to shifting attention without the need to disengage. Difficulties with attention could in turn be implicated in several of the behavioral characteristics of WS. Here, disengagement and shifting of visual attention, together with Pupil Research dilation, were independe...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Sticky

Reading comprehension is an essential language skill and cognitive ability usually elicited and examined through tasks. Investigations into the effects of task type on reading comprehension have mostly focused on reading outcome (accuracy) and drawn divergent conclusions because of research instrument restrictions. This study employed eye tracking to explore 43 Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ reading comprehension processes with the multiple choice (MC) and short answer (SA) tasks based on Khalifa and Weir’s model of reading. It was...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

Contemporary television news programmes are often complex examples of hybrid communication (see Bucher, ‘Multimodal understanding or reception as interaction’, 2011). Television news presents related as well as unrelated information in both a linear and non-linear fashion by combining the news read with a variety of visual elements. Studies utilizing eye-tracking have found the visual attention received by the various types of elements to vary considerably (see Josephson and Holmes, ‘Clutter or content? How on-screen enhancements affect how TV viewer...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

People often make decisions by either choosing an alternative they like (choose mode) or rejecting alternatives they dislike (reject mode). Previous research has demonstrated that these two decision modes involve distinct cognitive processes. In the current work, we further investigate whether these distinct cognitive processes in these two decision modes symmetrically or asymmetrically impact people's subsequent preferences for their preferred (chosen or nonrejected) alternatives. Across three experiments involving consumer goods, we found that particip...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

The present study employed eye-tracking technology and a free-viewing paradigm to explore the mechanisms of attentional bias toward emotional faces in individuals with social anxiety, using real and cartoon faces (angry, happy, disgusted, neutral) as stimuli. In Experiment 1, socially anxious individuals demonstrated significantly reduced total fixation duration and count on the eye regions of all four emotional face types presented by real people compared to controls. They also showed shorter fixation durations and fewer fixations on the facial area ass...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro TX-300

Detecting Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) using Eye Tracking (ET) datasets is a challenging task and has been a long-standing problem. Recently, there has been a trend of developing ASD diagnosis models based on machine learning (ML), especially deep learning techniques. In this paper, we show that these existing methods still struggle to make accurate diagnoses in few-shot learning (FSL) settings, where the data available for training is limited in amount and imbalanced in nature. To address this challenge, we propose a model, named ConASD, for effective...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300

BackgroundLanguage difficulties are common in autism, with several theoretical perspectives proposing that difficulties in forming and updating predictions may underlie the cognitive profile of autism. However, research examining prediction in the language domain among autistic children remains limited, with inconsistent findings regarding prediction efficiency and insufficient investigation of how autistic children incrementally integrate multiple semantic elements during language processing. This study addresses these gaps by investigating both predict...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• SDK

BackgroundMaladaptive behaviour is common in students with intellectual disability (ID). While executive functions (EFs) in typically developing children and adolescents are associated with maladaptive behaviour, there is currently contradictory and only fragmented empirical evidence on this association in students with ID. However, following impairments of EFs in this population, investigating this relationship could enhance the understanding of the development of maladaptive behaviour in students with ID.MethodThe sample consisted of 45 students with I...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

In this investigation, we delved into the developmental progression of two predictive mechanisms in language comprehension: the associative (Mechanism 1) and the context- and intention-dependent (Mechanism 2). Across three experiments, we assessed the ability to predict semantic content based on syntactic cues among toddlers and adults. Participants were exposed to correction (e.g., "In the yard, I saw a dog, no, a rabbit") and coordination (e.g., "In the yard, I saw a dog and a rabbit") sentences. Concurrently, they viewed four competing images: two nou...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Open Source Presentation

Studies suggest that infants initially show universal discrimination abilities. However, this narrative has been heavily based on Indo-European languages. It has also been proposed that infants' speech sound discrimination is affected by acoustic salience, such that acoustically subtle contrasts are not discriminated until the end of an infant's first year. Furthermore, others have suggested an influence of word position and positional frequency in discrimination abilities. In Study 1, we analyzed a child-directed corpus of Tagalog and found that the /n/...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Open Source Presentation

In-the-moment dissociations between language and visuospatial systems in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may explain notable heterogeneity observed in both language and visuospatial skills. The current study used Pupil Researchlometry, a physiological measure of in-the-moment cognitive effort, during a mental rotation task to examine associations between structural language and visuospatial cognition. Participants were 25 children and young adults with ASD and 25 age- and IQ-matched neurotypical (NT) peers. The mental rotation task involved four condition...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

Introduction: Animated logos have become a substantial investment in brand marketing, and designers tend to use flashy presentation effects for brand animations. Brands must understand how effectively animated logos capture users' attention in media communication of visual distractions. However, the reasons for the impact on users' sustained attention are not yet clear. By investigating users' perceptions of animated brand logos, this study proposes a new dimension: "perceived unpredictability."Methods: Combining previous studies on physics, psychology, ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

Abstract It has been established that bilinguals activate both languages even when only one language is being used. However, little is known about how the two languages are co-activated during simultaneous interpreting (SI), a demanding task involving intensive code-switching. This study investigated (1) the effect of task on cross-language co-activation and (2) the time course of co-activations triggered by form and meaning. Thirty-one professional interpreters were recruited to complete a cross-language task (English-to-Chinese SI) and a within-languag...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

Task complexity plays a crucial role in cognitive development, problem-solving skills, and effective learning. Engaging with complex tasks stimulates higher-order thinking, boosts learner motivation, and prepares students for real-world challenges and advanced studies. This study investigates how different levels of task complexity (low, medium, high) affect visual attention sequences and contrasts human scanpaths with those derived from the Compositional Language and Elementary Visual Reasoning (CLEVR) dataset’s computational model. Using eye-tracking t...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Studio

To overcome the subjectivity inherent in traditional depression diagnosis, this study explored the potential for objective detection using multimodal physiological signals and deep learning. Electroencephalogram (EEG) and eye-tracking data were collected from healthy controls (HC) and a mild depression (MD) group while they viewed a rotating tunnel visual illusion stimulus. Functional connectivity was characterized using Pearson correlation coefficient matrices derived from EEG signals, and eye-tracking trajectory data were processed. A dual-stream deep ...Show more

• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

Objective: Research has shown attentional bias and hyper in individuals with social anxiety during the observation of emotional Facial Expression and Emotions, particularly with static stimuli. We investigated the recognition of dynamic and static Facial Expression and Emotions and eye-tracking correlates. Method: Participants were 56 volunteers divided into a control group and a social anxiety group (SAG). Stimuli were emotional faces of joy, disgust, anger, and sadness presented in four emotional intensities (25%, 50%, 75%, 100%) statically and dynamic...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Studio

Syllable stress can help to quickly identify words in a language with variable stress placement like German. Here, we asked at what age incorrect syllable stress impairs language learners’ attempts to assign meaning to familiar words. We recorded the looking times of young children learning German aged from 4 to 15 months (infants, N69) and 2 to 4 years (toddlers, N28). Participants saw displays of two pictures (e.g., a car and a baby); one of both objects (the target) was named. The disyllabic name of the target was either correctly stressed on the firs...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Studio

Studies in low-resource settings suggest that multiple aspects of early childhood development are sensitive to the relative poverty of a child's environment. We examined whether direct, quantitative measures of early developing cognitive functions show a similar association with relative poverty. Eye movement latencies were recorded in children at 7, 17, and 36 months in rural South Africa (N = 374). The latency to respond to the appearance of visual objects was inversely associated with a proxy measure of the child's socioeconomic environment (household...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro X3-120

BackgroundPupil Research changes in response to well-controlled stimuli can be used to understand processes that regulate attention, learning, and arousal.This study investigates whether Pupil Research dynamics to social stimuli are associated with concurrent adaptive behavior in typically developing infants. To accomplish this, we developed and assessed Pupil Researchlary responses to Stimuli for Early Social Arousal and Motivation in Infants (SESAMI).MethodsA sample of forty-six typically developing children aged six to twenty-four months were exposed ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

Oral presentations are considered to provoke high levels of anxiety, yet limited research has explored this phenomenon in the context of video conferences. Considering the feasibility of private facial filters in video calls and the impact of audience appearance on speakers’ experiences, we propose modifying the visual representation of the audience to reduce oral presentation anxiety in video conferences. We found literature evidence supporting the effectiveness of both highly familiar appearances and attractive anime characters in reducing anxiety. Bui...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

BACKGROUND: Neurodivergent students, including those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), frequently encounter challenges in several areas of foreign language (FL) learning, including vocabulary acquisition. This exploratory study aimed to investigate real-time English as a Foreign Language (EFL) word recognition using eye tracking within the Visual World Paradigm (VWP). Specifically, it examined whether gaze patterns could serve as indicators of successful word recognition, how these patterns varied ac...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30

Our modern food environment is full of highly palatable, ultra-processed foods that influence our eating behaviors. The reinforcement learning framework posits that some individuals readily assign motivational value to environmental cues (e.g., food ads) that predict reward, biasing their attention and making them more susceptible to seek that reward. These individuals are characterized as sign-trackers and differ from goal-trackers who do not tend to assign motivational value to those reward-predicting environmental cues. Here, we tested whether this we...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Open Source Presentation

The present study investigates attentional biases (ABs) in gamblers and non-gamblers, focusing on both gambling-related and food-related stimuli to examine the relationship between these biases and the Incentive Sensitization (IS) and Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) models of addiction. Using an eye-tracking methodology, we assess how ABs differ across three conditions involving two types of images: Food vs. Gambling, Food vs. Neutral, and Gambling vs. Neutral. Gamblers showed a significant AB toward gambling-related stimuli compared to neutral cues, su...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

Understanding human perceptual strategies in high-stakes environments, such as crime scene investigations, is essential for developing cognitive models that reflect expert decision-making. This study presents an immersive experimental framework that utilizes virtual reality (VR) and eye-tracking technologies to capture and analyze visual attention during simulated forensic tasks. A360° panoramic crime scene, constructed using the Nikon KeyMission 360 camera, was integrated into a VR system with HTC Vive and Tobii Pro eye-tracking components. A total of 4...Show more

• Tobii VR
• SDK

Traditional gaze analysis methods for online lecture largely depend on predefined average gaze features and self-reported ground-truths, limiting their ability to obtain real-time status in unsupervised settings. To address this, we propose Gaze-READ (Gaze Representative Embedding and Anomaly Detection), a framework that integrates gaze behavior analysis with unsupervised anomaly detection to systematically identify attention shifts caused by external stimuli. Our approach leverages GazeMTM (Masked Time-Series Modeling of Gaze), which employs MOMENT, a t...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300

Our ability to detect and discriminate stimuli differs across the visual field. Does metaperception (i.e., visual confidence) follow these differences? Evidence is mixed, as studies have reported overconfidence in peripheral detection tasks and underconfidence in a peripheral local orientation discrimination task. Here, we tested whether overconfidence can arise in a task that aligns with the strengths of peripheral vision: rapid scene categorization. In each interval, our participants viewed a scene only in the periphery (scotoma) or only in the center ...Show more

• SDK

Individuals differ in their tendency to assign motivational value to reward-predictive cues, conceptualized as “sign tracker” (ST) versus “goal tracker” (GT) behaviors in animal models. STs approach a reward-predictive cue, while GTs go to the location of reward delivery. An intermediate phenotype is sometimes identified. These profiles have been linked to addiction vulnerability because of a higher propensity to sign-track in drug-addicted rats. However, efforts to translate this model to humans have yielded inconsistent findings, partly because of vari...Show more

• SDK

Background: Ear advantage (EA) reflects hemispheric asymmetries in auditory processing. While a right-ear advantage (REA) for speech and a left-ear advantage (LEA) for music are well documented in typically developing individuals, it is unclear how these patterns manifest in young children with cochlear implants (CIs). This study investigated whether Pupil Researchlometry could reveal asymmetric listening efforts in toddlers with bilateral CIs when listening to speech and music under monaural stimulation. Methods: Thirteen toddlers (mean age = 36.2 month...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

Adolescence is a key period in which anxiety symptoms dramatically increase, particularly among adolescent girls. Identifying potentially-modifiable risk factors that contribute to anxiety symptoms may be critical to mitigate anxiety symptoms and disorders among youth. Attention biases are one set of cognitive risk factors implicated in the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders. Yet previous research remains mixed as to what pattern of attention bias characterizes adolescents at-risk for developing anxiety. Further, prior literature has largel...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Can your eyes give away your deepest secrets? In two preregistered studies, we examined whether eye movements toward modified areas of a crime scene enable to detect crime knowledge. After committing either a mock crime or an unrelated task, guilty (Study 1 n = 12; Study 2 n = 63) and innocent (Study 1 n = 21; Study 2 n = 74) participants viewed the crime scene in virtual reality to which several salient modifications were made. Guilty participants looked more (Study 1 d = 0.88; Study 2 d = 0.65) and earlier (Study 1 d = 0.66; Study 2 d = 0.52) at these ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR

(1) Background: Virtual Reality (VR) films challenge traditional visual cognition by offering novel perceptual experiences. This study investigates the applicability of Gestalt grouping principles in dynamic VR scenes, the influence of VR environments on grouping efficiency, and the relationship between viewer experience and grouping effects. (2) Methods: Eye-tracking experiments were conducted with 42 participants using the HTC Vive Pro Eye and Tobii Pro Lab. Participants watched a non-narrative VR film with fixed camera positions to eliminate narrative...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR

In the current era of continuous innovation in educational philosophy, the importance of art education for students ‘creativity, aesthetic ability, and all-round development has become increasingly prominent, with personalized education becoming a key trend. This study focuses on art education, aiming to address the lack of personalization in traditional teaching methods by proposing innovative solutions using multimodal deep learning technology. The research constructs a Multimodal Feature Fusion Network (MFFN) and an Evolutionary Path Generation Algori...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• SDK

Abstract Highly frequent discourse particles (DPs) express speaker attitudes and guide utterance interpretation, but we still lack a satisfactory explanation of how DPs are actually processed. Some results show facilitation, while others show processing costs. Previous studies have aimed to elicit core meanings of DPs embedded in highly plausible contexts, in contrast to more unlikely contexts that force two quite different interpretations. The present study uses a novel eye-tracking experiment where DPs instead are presented in low-constraint contexts. ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

This study investigates reading performances and eye movements in individuals with eccentric fixation due to age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Overall, 17 individuals with bilateral AMD (7 males; mean age 77.47 ± 5.96 years) and 17 controls (10 males; mean age 72.18 ± 5.98 years) were assessed for reading visual acuity (VA), reading speed (Minnesota low vision reading chart in Slovene, MNREAD-SI), and near contrast sensitivity (Pelli-Robson). Microperimetry (NIDEK MP-3) was used to evaluate preferential retinal locus (PRL) location and fixation sta...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• SDK

ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate the effects of time pressure on decision-making and visual search behavior among college basketball players with different levels of expertise.MethodsFollowing the expert–novice paradigm, a total of 40 male participants were recruited, including 20 trained basketball athletes and 20 non-athlete college students. A  × 2 mixed factorial design was employed, with athletic expertise (athletes vs. non-athletes) as the between-subjects factor and time pressure (present vs. absent) as the within-subjects factor. Particip...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

Processing speed and response control are fundamental properties of brain function and potential markers of cognitive ability. This study, a secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial, examined whether eye-tracking measures of saccadic reaction time and gaze control are associated with an established cognitive ability test, Raven’s coloured progressive matrices (CPM), among 13-year-old rural Malawian adolescents (1003 participants, 50.3% boys). Mean prosaccadic reaction time (pSRTm), antiSaccade Research error rate (PE) and CPM result were obtai...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

Brain-computer interface (BCI) integration with virtual reality (VR) has progressed from single-limb control to multi-limb coordination, yet achieving intuitive tri-manual operation remains challenging. This study presents a consumer-grade hybrid BCI-VR framework enabling simultaneous control of two biological hands and a virtual third limb through integration of Tobii eye-tracking, NeuroSky single-channel EEG, and non-haptic controllers. The system employs e-Sense attention thresholds (>80% for 300 ms) to trigger virtual hand activation combined ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

Visual-world eye-tracking has long been a useful tool for measuring young children’s real-time interpretation of words and sentences. Recently, researchers have extended this method to virtual platforms to reduce equipment costs and recruit more diverse participants. However, there is currently limited guidance on best practices, which require individual researchers to invent their own methodologies and may prevent broader adoption. Here, we present three broad approaches for implementing nine remote visual-world eye-tracking studies, and show that this ...Show more

The ability to control movement is a core element of agency. Previous studies of infant agency have focused on responses to sensory contingencies but neglected the importance of infants' control as a necessary indicator of agency. Here, we test whether infants flexibly control their eye movements with a gaze‐contingent eye tracking paradigm. Infants aged 6–10 months (N = 45, 18 female, recruited in a city of about 600.000 inhabitants in Germin 2022) were presented images hidden under a unicolored surface, which they could scratch free by gazing over the ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• SDK

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to compare the impact of clear aligners with different edge finishes on esthetic perception across various specialties, using eye-tracking technology and the visual analog scale.METHODS: Three different trimlines are designed at the gingival border: short scallop, straight, and straight extended. The designed aligners were taken in the mouth without a retractor, in a dark environment with a softbox. The prepared images were turned into a survey via the Google Docs document service. The survey questioning esthetic success ac...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii Sticky

Drawing is an artistic process involving extensive observation. Understanding how professional artists observe as they draw has significant value because it offers insight into their perception patterns and acquired skills. While previous studies used eye tracking to analyze the drawing process, they fell short in aligning gaze data with drawing actions due to the spatial and temporal gaps between observation and drawing in a model-to-paper setup. This paper presents a study in an image-to-image setup, in which artists observe a reference image and draw ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spark

This study investigated cross‐cultural differences in visual attention patterns during comic reading, focusing on participants with Japanese and American cultural backgrounds. Using an eye‐tracking paradigm, we examined attention processes as participants viewed pages from American comics and Japanese manga featuring objective or subjective viewpoints. The results showed that for objective pages, American readers exhibited relatively longer fixations on focal objects, while Japanese readers allocated relatively more attention to backgrounds, aligning wit...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Studio

Successful encoding of a navigational episode entails the dynamic processing of perceptual information, time-locked to the appearance of salient landmarks and turns along the way. We hypothesized that identical navigational experiences will be represented in a similar manner across individuals and that a deviation from such canonical dynamics in the cortico-hippocampal network may underlie differences in navigational memory across individuals and its decline in aging. 76 participants (42 females) across two age groups (young: 20-30 years, aging: 50-65 ye...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

Text comprehension is an important skill that a student can develop, and reading behaviours like skimming and scanning can provide deep insights into how comprehension unfolds in realtime. These behaviours can be examined through deliberate eye movements, which offer a unique lens for investigating reading processes. Yet, most studies rely on low-level eye gaze metrics, such as fixations, as proxies for reading that do not distinguish reading from other tasks like video watching. More precise operationalisations of reading behaviours can provide deeper i...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Assessing the use of proactive cognitive control is essential for understanding how thoughts and actions are regulated. The present study aimed to determine whether proactive control can be measured through patterns of eye movements during the cue–probe delay in a spatially modified AX-CPT. Across two experiments, we found that gaze activity at screen locations where cues and probes appeared predicted both the extent of proactive control adopted by participants and their ability to override a prepotent response tendency. However, the specific cognitive p...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

Monitoring and controlling cognitive workload are critical for maintaining smooth performance in complex visuospatial tasks that require high mental effort. This study utilizes Pupil Researchlometry in conjunction with machine learning models to predict cognitive workload during a Lego building task. Twenty university students participated in the complex Lego building task, and their Pupil Research diameter data were collected using eye-tracking glasses. After the data were preprocessed and normalized, the K-means clustering method classified baseline-co...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

This chapter serves as an exploration of the fundamental principles of eye-tracking as a research methodology. It delves into the technical underpinnings of eye-tracking devices, elucidates key metrics used in academic literature, and demonstrates the diverse spectrum of research inquiries that can be effectively addressed through this approach. Encompassing news consumption across multiple platforms and modalities, including on social media sites like Facebook and within search engine results, the methodology’s versatility is showcased. By further discu...Show more

Eye Tracking (ET) is used in different industries to understand human visual attention, cognitive load, and decision-making processes by capturing where, and for how long a person focuses their attention. A major challenge in processing ET data is mapping gaze points to dynamic Areas of Interest (AOIs) while accounting for data variability and head movements. The purpose of this research is to compare and evaluate methods for automatic gaze-to-AOI mapping to improve efficiency and accuracy in gaze analysis. An ArUco-marker based analytical software was d...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• Tobii Pro Lab

Visuospatial tasks involve varied eye behaviors such as rapid visual search, fixations, and Pupil Research adjustments. Understanding how eye-tracking metrics change during visuospatial tasks of varying complexity provides valuable insights into cognitive processes related to task complexity. This study explores the differences in eye-tracking metrics between simple and complex visuospatial tasks. This study was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting with a cohort of 20 university students who built two Lego models as simple and complex tasks. The ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Visual context plays an important role in reading behavior. However, the effects of background color on reading performance remain underexplored. This study investigated how background color (white vs. light green) affects reading performance, visual fatigue, emotion, and physiological responses in first language (L1, Chinese) and second language (L2, English) reading contexts. Forty university students completed reading tasks under both background color conditions, and self-report, behavioral, eye-tracking, and physiological data were collected. The res...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses

This study explored how users respond to a depression self-diagnosis app with two outcomes: “doctor-generated” and “Artificial Intelligence-generated.” The doctor-generated result was based on participants’ actual PHQ-9 depression scores, while the Artificial Intelligence-generated result was randomly selected and sometimes matched the true diagnosis. Participants ( n  = 47) with depressive symptoms used the app while Pupil Research dilation was recorded using a Tobii Pro Spectrum eye tracker. Pupil Research dilation was analyzed before and during th...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• SDK

This study explores the eye movement patterns of reading literary texts for translation using eye-tracking technology. It compares four tasks: reading aloud, sight translation, text copying, and written translation. Results show that translation tasks involve more fixations per word, longer reading times, and higher regression probabilities than non-translation tasks. The study identifies four initial orientation styles: systematic planners, quick planners, scanners, and head starters. It also discerns online planning behaviors such as sentence planning,...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Open Source Application

As artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence) technologies increasingly permeate the field of interpreting, it becomes imperative for interpreters to adapt and develop the requisite skills to excel in this evolving landscape. While Artificial Intelligence-assisted simultaneous interpreting (SI), specifically through the use of automatic live captioning tools demonstrates potential to enhance rendition accuracy, few empirical studies examine the pedagogical approaches specific to Artificial Intelligence-assisted SI training. This study aims to addr...Show more

• Tobii Pro 1750 / 2150
• SDK

Abstract reasoning is a key ability for students’ cognitive development, yet traditional methods often fail to provide an accurate and objective assessment. We propose a novel machine learning approach that utilises EEG data from low-cost headsets to predict response correctness in abstract reasoning tasks. This paper presents an adaptive LSTM model incorporating multi-head attention for analysing EEG data acquired during both the reasoning (pre-response) and feedback (post-response) phases of abstract reasoning questions. Results demonstrate the model’s...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

In this paper, we present an experiment that shows conflicting findings from truth-value judgments and eye-tracking data for testing reference assignment of proper names. We argue that if eye-tracking is a more reliable method than truth-value judgment tasks, then our eye-tracking data provide stronger empirical support for the causal-historical theory of reference for proper names. We also argue that eye-tracking and truth-value judgments cannot both be reliable techniques for resolving the debate. If they were, they should yield convergent results. Ins...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

Background/Objectives: Deficits in emotion recognition abilities have been described as risk factors for intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration. However, much of this research is based on self-reports or instruments that present limited psychometric properties. While current scientific literature supports the use of eye tracking to assess cognitive and emotional processes, including emotional decoding abilities, there is a gap in the scientific literature when it comes to measuring these processes in IPV perpetrators using eye tracking in an emotio...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

Language processing in monolingual and heritage speakers shows variation when the concept of aspect processing, an understudied phenomenon in the literature, is taken into consideration. In this regard, this study focuses on grammatical aspect (i.e., imperfective and perfective) in monolingual and heritage speakers of Turkish, and aims to uncover Turkish monolinguals’ and heritage speakers’ processing of perfective aspect for completed events and imperfective aspect for ongoing events. Furthermore, the study also aims to explore whether language proficie...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Emotional text-to-speech (TTS) technology has achieved significant progress in recent years; however, challenges remain owing to the inherent complexity of emotions and limitations of the available emotional speech datasets and models. Previous studies typically relied on limited emotional speech datasets or required extensive manual annotations, restricting their ability to generalize across different speakers and emotional styles. In this paper, we present EmoSphere++, an emotion-controllable zero-shot TTS model that can control emotional style and int...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Open Source Application

BackgroundNeuroscientific theories of Developmental Dyslexia (DD) primarily focus on language-related dysfunctions and their associated brain networks. However, DD is also associated with alterations in sensory pathways. For example, there is reduced connectivity in DD, in comparison to controls, between the left lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and V5/MT, a motion-sensitive visual area implicated in reading. Most neurostimulation studies in children with DD target language-related brain regions to improve reading, often overlooking motion-sensitive visu...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• SDK

Statistical learning of spatial regularities during visual search leads to prioritization of target-rich locations. The resulting attentional bias may subsequently affect orienting and search behavior in similar tasks but its transfer to free viewing has not been demonstrated. We exploited a novel closed-loop paradigm where human observers searched for invisible target locations on a screen only guided by real-time auditory feedback conveying gaze-target distance. Unbeknownst to participants, location probability was biased towards one hemifield. Free vi...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

Abstract Infant gaze-following skills and selective attention to the mouth of talking faces during their first year correlate with their vocabulary growth in their second year. This correlational evidence has led to the hypothesis that these attentional strategies are key mechanisms supporting word acquisition, a process which drastically improves during toddlerhood. If so, covering the eyes or mouth region of a talking face that teaches toddlers novel word–object associations should disrupt or diminish their word learning performance. To test this relat...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

Simultaneous interpreting (SI) with text, a hybrid modality combining auditory and visual inputs, presents greater cognitive complexity than traditional SI. This study investigates multimodal processing in Chinese-English SI with text by examining how source speech rate and professional experience modulate interpreters’ Ear-Eye-Voice Span (EIVS)—a temporal measure reflecting the cognitive coordination among auditory input, visual processing, and verbal output—and interpreting performance. Using eye-tracking technology, we analyzed EIVS patterns in 15 pro...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Studio

Fast mapping is essential when children acquire language, but whether the required cognition is uniquely human or shared with animals is debated. Although documented in dogs and cats, both species have a history of domestication of social cognition, so that it remains unclear whether fast mapping is naturally present in non-domesticated animals. Here, we used an eye-tracking paradigm to test three species of hominids – gorillas, orangutans and humans – in their ability to rapidly learn to associate novel sounds with objects in their everyday noisy enviro...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Open Source Presentation

Food scarcity in an ancestral environment has led to an evolved psychology that shapes our decision making in eating. To buffer against times of uncertainty and food shortages, humans have a predisposition to prefer foods that are energy dense, and this may be explained by cognitive mechanisms that drive our search and preferences for foods. In the current study, the role of ecological harshness cues (e.g., safety, resource scarcity, violence) and anticipated food scarcity in desirability and visual attention to high vs. low-caloric food items. Participa...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

The present work investigated how aging influences the different stages of face expressions processing: fixation patterns, early perception, face motor response and recognition. Thirty-four participants (17 young, 17 senior) were subjected to i) recording of fixation patterns, ii) recording of the P100 and the N170 components of event-related potentials, iii) excitability of short intracortical inhibition (SICI) and intracortical facilitation (ICF) of the face primary motor cortex (face M1) , and iv) recognition task during the passive viewing of neutral...Show more

• Tobii Pro Studio
• Psychtoolbox

Background Minority groups including transgender persons are frequently subjected to social rejection and ostracism, leading to minority stress. This stress may lead to a variety of adverse mental and physical health outcomes. Yet, the impact of this stress on underlying psychophysiology in transgender people has not been tested experimentally. Methods Using the “first impressions paradigm” this study examined psychophysiological feedback to experimentally-induced social rejection in hormone-naïve transgender people (37 trans men (TM) and 27 trans women...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300