Eye tracking insights in human factors Q3 2024

With the explosive growth of multimedia streaming services and virtual reality devices, omnidirectional video (ODV) is becoming increasingly popular in practical applications. However, streaming the entire ODV with high definition and high frame rate induces a waste of bandwidth. The tile-based viewport adaptive streaming provides a solution to overcome volatile network conditions, while the scheme would lead to quality adaptation when the network changes dynamically. In this paper, we focus on investigating how the human visual quality of experience (Qo...Show more

• Tobii VR

The recent advancement in additive manufacturing (AM) leads to an extensive need for an industrial workforce in the near future. Workforce training in AM requires expensive capital investment for installing and maintaining this technology and proper knowledge about potential safety hazards. Traditional classroom settings often fail to bridge the critical gap between textbook learning and practical applications. Virtual reality (VR) training can simulate real-world scenarios in a safe and controlled environment and improve student involvement to foster pr...Show more

• Tobii VR

This investigation seeks to elucidate the influence of monocular and binocular vision on shooting behaviors, with an emphasis on evaluating shooting precision, the rapidity of aiming responses, and two ocular metrics: the ratio of saccade duration and the mean peak saccade velocity. Findings reveal that monocular aiming surpasses binocular aiming in terms of shooting accuracy, as monocular aiming enhances the shooter's focus on target details. Binocular aiming has a shorter aiming response time in rapid response shooting at multiple targets. The proporti...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Medical image segmentation has seen great progress in recent years, largely due to the development of deep neural networks. However, unlike in computer vision, high-quality clinical data is relatively scarce, and the annotation process is often a burden for clinicians. As a result, the scarcity of medical data limits the performance of existing medical image segmentation models. In this paper, we propose a novel framework that integrates eye tracking information from experienced radiologists during the screening process to improve the performance of deep...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

In high-risk operational environments, pilots are susceptible to stress reactions, which can adversely influence their cognitive process and operational performance. Thus, it is crucial to devise effective methods for assessing pilots' stress levels. This research developed a pilot stress classification model employing eye-tracking and heart rate variability (HRV) features within a simulated aviation task context. Utilizing a neural network algorithm, a three-tier stress classification model was established, demonstrating a five-fold cross-validation acc...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

A visual workload model was constructed to determine and evaluate drivers’ visual workload characteristics in high-density interchange-merging areas. Five interchanges were selected, and a real-vehicle driving test was conducted with 47 participants. To address the differences in drivers’ visual characteristics in the interchange cluster merging areas, the Criteria Importance Through Intercriteria Correlation (CRITIC) objective weighting method was employed. Six visual parameters were selected to establish a comprehensive evaluation model for the visual ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

We aimed to develop advanced machine learning models using electroencephalogram (EEG) and eye-tracking data to predict the mental workload associated with engaging in various surgical tasks.

• Tobii Pro Glasses

Recent advancements in four-legged robots have prompted their integration into the construction industry, yet the safety implications of their deployment remain inadequately explored. As such comprehensive investigations are required to ensure the safety of robot deployment and the well-being of construction professionals who work with and alongside these robots. This study addresses this gap by conducting a user-centered experiment employing virtual reality to assess human behavior and safety impacts in varying interaction spaces with four-legged robots...Show more

• Tobii VR
• Shimmer GSR

It is challenging for older drivers to transition to manual control after a Take-Over Request (TOR) has been issued by a Level 3 car. This study investigated if the presentation source of the TOR affects driver performance when resuming control. We measured take-over performance, hazard perception, and user acceptance when the TOR was presented on (1) a smartphone displaying a Non-Driving Related Task (NDRT) simultaneously with the In-Vehicle Information System (IVIS), or (2) presented on the IVIS only. Two NDRTs that varied in cognitive demand were test...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Psychopy

The remarkable growth of Virtual Reality (VR) in recent years has extended its applications beyond entertainment to sectors including education, e-commerce, and remote communication. Since VR devices contain user's private information, user authentication becomes increasingly important. Current authentication systems in VR, such as password-based or static biometric-based methods, are either cumbersome to use or vulnerable to attacks such as shoulder surfing. To address these limitations, we propose Medusa3D, a challenge-response authentication system fo...Show more

• Tobii VR

We explored how interaction performance is affected by multi-depth VR targeting and button selection using two targeting methods: eye tracking with no UX modifications and feedback, or the controller with a visible cursor for targeting. Selections happened on a controller button press for both targeting modalities. Targets had a diameter of either 3, 4, or 5 degrees, placed in depths between 0.3 m-5m. When comparing conditions of a 1 m single depth vs. multi-depth environment, the eyes were less affected by depth than the controller. We found that perfor...Show more

• Tobii VR

Vigilance refers to an individual’s ability to maintain attention over time. Vigilance decrement is particularly concerning in clinical environments where shift work and long working hours are common. This study identifies significant factors and indicators for predicting and monitoring individuals’ vigilance decrement. We enrolled 11 participants and measured their vigilance levels by recording their reaction times while completing the Psychomotor Vigilance Test. Additionally, we measured participants’ physiological responses and collected their sleep d...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab

The United Kingdom’s Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl) has developed an innovative military cognitive task battery tool titled: Interactive Measures of Performance and Assessment of Cognitive Tasks (IMPACT). The purpose of the tool is to support the objective assessment of cognitive task performance and task demand across a range of military system types, use cases and experimental settings. IMPACT consists of six, reconfigurable, generic military tasks, and an intuitive user interface for the experimenter to configure the tool and collect...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab

Background and Aims: Visual gaze pattern (VGP) analysis quantifies endoscopists’ specific eye movements. VGP during colonoscopy may be associated with polyp detection. However, the optimal VGP to maximize detection performance remains unclear. This study evaluated the optimal endoscopic VGP that enabled the highest colorectal adenoma detection rate. Methods: This randomized controlled trial was conducted between July and December 2023. We developed an eye-tracking and feedback (ETF) system that instructed endoscopists to correct their gaze toward the per...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spark

This study evaluates the usefulness and efficacy of three different continuous input devices - Makey Makey, Tobii Eye Tracker 4C, and Leap Motion - in promoting computer engagement for people with disabilities. A preliminary pilot study was conducted with the participation of one person with several disabilities. They were given various tasks to accomplish using each continuous input device, and their performance was assessed. To conduct the study, an experimental environment including two computers and a designed interface had to be setup. The findings ...Show more

Power distribution of progressive power lenses provides usable regions based on power distribution analysis. However, recent studies demonstrated that these regions are not always used for certain tasks as predicted. This work determines the concordance between the actual region of lens use and compares it with the theoretically located regions. The pupil position of 26 subjects was recorded using an eye-tracking system (Tobii-Pro-Glasses 3) at distance and near-reading tasks while wearing a general use progressive power lens. Subjects were asked to read...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Caused by nonlinear vibration, ocean white noise exhibits complex dynamic characteristics and nonlinear perception characteristics. To explore the potential application of ocean white noise in engineering and health fields, novel methods based on deep learning algorithms are proposed to generate ocean white noise, contributing to marine environment simulation in ocean engineering. A comparative study, including spectrum analysis and auditory testing, proved the superiority of the generation method using deep learning networks over general mathematical or...Show more

In the context of vehicle intelligence, smart cockpits are widely used in modern vehicle design. However, with the popularity of smart cockpits, their impact on drivers’ driving behavior have not been evaluated. This study investigated the degree of visual-manual distraction and secondary task performance of drivers by four center screen layouts (single, joint, vertical and horizontal screens) in smart cockpits. Twenty-four drivers used the four smart cockpit layouts to complete three secondary tasks on real roads: a dashboard viewing task, a song switch...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Vision is one of the most important human senses, accounting for most of the external information pedestrians receive while crossing the street. However, distracted mobile phone usage during street crossing consumes pedestrians’ cognitive resources and diverts their visual attention. As a result, pedestrians may be unable to fully concentrate on observing the traffic environment and effectively planning their crossing path and behavior. This study evaluated the effect of pedestrian behavioral activities at street crossings on eye-movement (EM) characteri...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Ergoneers

There are many safety hazards in construction workplaces, and inattention to the hazards is the main reason why construction workers failed to identify the hazards. Reasonably allocating attention during hazard identification is critical for construction workers’ safety. However, adverse working environments in job sites may undermine workers’ attention. Previous studies failed to investigate the impacts of environmental factors on attention allocation, which hinders taking appropriate measures to eliminate safety incidents when encountering adverse work...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR

Architectural colors significantly influence urban culture, city imagery, regional vitality, and residential experiences. Previous studies have demonstrated that appropriate architectural colors can enhance urban vitality, but research on multicolored buildings remains limited. This study examines the relationship between hue, color variations, and visual quality by cross-verifying eye-tracking physiological indicators with subjective assessments. Using digital models of old residential buildings in Shanghai’s Yangpu District, different color combination...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

Over the past three decades, Trust in Automation (TiA) has been the subject of extensive research. However, a large portion of the research takes a “static” approach to modeling trust and views trust as a linear unidirectional phenomenon. This view fails to recognize that trust is a dynamic construct that changes over time as an outcome of prolonged interaction with automation. The present study aims to address this gap and explore the nonlinear dynamic nature of trust by developing a simulation model of Trust in Automation (TiA) that can demonstrate tru...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

With prior knowledge of seen objects, humans have a remarkable ability to recognize novel objects using shared and distinct local attributes. This is significant for the challenging tasks of zero-shot learning (ZSL) and fine-grained visual classification (FGVC), where the discriminative attributes of objects have played an important role. Inspired by human visual attention, neural networks have widely exploited the attention mechanism to learn the locally discriminative attributes for challenging tasks. Though greatly promoted the development of these fi...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

Artificial intelligence (AI) tools are rapidly transforming the field of traditional artistic creation, influencing painting processes and human creativity. This study explores human–AI cooperation in real-time artistic drawing by using the AIGC tool KREA.AI. Participants wear eye trackers and perform drawing tasks by adjusting the AI parameters. The research aims to investigate the impact of cross-screen and non-cross-screen conditions, as well as different viewing strategies, on cognitive load and the degree of creative stimulation during user–AI colla...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Enabled by the latest achievements in artificial intelligence (AI), computer graphics as well as virtual, augmented, and mixed reality (VR/AR/MR), virtual agents are increasingly resembling humans in both their appearance and intelligent behavior. This results in enormous potential for agents to support users in their daily lives, for example in customer service, healthcare, education or the envisioned all-encompassing metaverse. Today's technology would allow users to customize their conversation partners in the metaverse - as opposed to reality - accor...Show more

In-vehicle Augmented Reality Head-Up Displays (AR-HUDs) offer drivers integrated navigation and vehicle status information, thereby improving the driving experience. Many studies explored the effects of AR-HUD navigation design and information presentation on driving performance; however, these studies neglected the occurrence of inattentional blindness, which may lead to potential safety hazards. This study used a two-factor within-subjects design to investigate how dynamic effects (pulsation, blinking, movement) and color transparency levels (T1, T0.75...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Falling hazards pose significant health and safety risks to workers. This paper investigated the correlation between visual attention and brain activity in the recognition of human and object falling hazards. Seventy construction workers were recruited and asked to identify hazards depicted in images while undergoing eye tracking and electroencephalography. Raw electroencephalography and eye movement data were cleaned using band-pass filtering and independent component analysis. The time-frequency representation method was then employed to compute the fi...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

This study investigates the efficacy of saliency mapping algorithms in capturing the visual priorities of building inspectors for structural damage assessment. Our work established a ground truth dataset by implementing eye-tracking technology to capture the gaze patterns of building inspectors. Further, it enables a detailed evaluation of the saliency models’ ability to reflect experts' visual attention during inspection tasks. Our comparative analysis assesses the performance of three saliency models— EnDec, DeepGaze, and SALICON— against this ground t...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Hazard perception, as a dynamic indicator, intuitively characterizes drivers’ ability to detect potential hazard events in complex driving environments. However, current quantitative research on the hazard perceptions of drivers in the human–machine codriving phase is lacking. A total of 30 drivers were recruited to carry out a driving simulator experiment, and a total of 8 risky driving scenarios were experienced. The physiological characteristics and eye movement characteristics of the drivers were collected. An expert evaluation method was selected to...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Biopac

Our previous research, aimed at improving the design of multi-attribute tables (such as product catalogs), found that black-and-white graphics aided decision-making more than numerical or textual formats (Ideno et al., Diagrams 2020). We extended these findings by examining how combining graphic and numerical presentation (highlighting the cells with superior values) influences decision-making. Twenty-one participants chose the most desirable digital cameras from five alternatives. Results showed faster decision-making with highlighted cells compared to ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spark

Quiet eye (QE), the visual fixation on a target before initiation of a critical action, is associated with improved performance. While QE is trainable, it is unclear whether QE can directly predict performance, which has implications for training interventions. This study predicted basketball shot outcome (make or miss) from visuomotor control variables using a decision tree classification approach. Twelve basketball athletes completed 200 shots from six on-court locations while wearing mobile eye-tracking glasses. Training and testing data sets were use...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Although festivals centered around intangible cultural heritage (ICH) remain pivotal attractions for tourism destinations, the enduring appeal of Chinese opera experiences a significant decline. This research investigates whether imbuing traditional Chinese opera with modernized elements would attract young festival-goers, applying cognitive appraisal theory. Study 1 utilizing a mixed method generated eight dimensions (i.e., action, costume, lighting, makeup, music, script, story, and venue) and 41 items for measuring modernized attributes of Chinese ope...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses

Contacting forests in different ways and conducting public perception evaluations of forests are important ways to evaluate forest construction. In order to explore the differences between on-site and manual post-collection indoor evaluations in forest landscape surveys, we combined subjective evaluation and objective indicator monitoring (eye movement characteristics, physiological indicators) based on different forest observation scales. We compared and analyzed the suitability of the following four visual approaches: on-site observation, manual collec...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii VR

This research presents a novel methodology for Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) and Bayesian Optimisation of the thermal performance of PCMs in building operations. The developed models utilise a unique and large dataset comprising 1500 building thermal profiles, simulated for various climates and building setups obtained from our industry partners and as open data. PCM-based systems are deployed for thermal insulation of building envelopes to regulate indoor temperature conditions and reduce the need for heating and cooling systems, resulting in enhanc...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

With the continuous maturation of technology and the deepening of human-centered design philosophy, eye tracking technology has gradually been applied in research studies for the optimization of flight deck design in commercial aviation. While these studies have focused solely on Pilot Flying (PF), without considering the visual attention distribution of Pilot Monitoring (PM). The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare the visual attention distribution of PF and PM during different flight phases, providing more comprehensive guidance and optimi...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Driver distraction is intricately linked to human behavior and cognitive ergonomics, as it explores how human engagement with various stimuli influences attention and decision-making processes while driving. The main purpose of this study is to comprehensively explore whether using Human–Machine Interface infotainment systems in automated vehicles can affect driver distraction. To this end, driver distraction was measured by driving performance features (speed, lane position, and reaction time), behavioral features (fixation time and pupil dilation), phy...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses

In-vehicle information system (IVIS) use is prevalent among young adults. However, their interaction with IVIS needs to be better understood. Therefore, an on-road study aims to explore the effects of input modalities and secondary task types on young drivers' secondary task performance, driving performance, and visual glance behavior. A 2 × 4 within-subject design was undertaken. The independent variables are input modalities (auditory-speech and visual-manual) and secondary task types (calls, music, navigation, and radio). The dependent variables inclu...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Car body lighting (CBL) is increasingly being used to enhance brand recognition and consumer appeal. However, due to the finite attentional capacity of individuals, such salient stimuli may distract people from safety-related tasks, potentially leading to traffic crashes. While existing research on external lighting of vehicles predominantly examines how external human–machine interfaces (eHMI) characteristics affect communication efficiency, there are few studies exploring the relationship between decorative lighting parameters and distraction. This stu...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab

Advanced product presentation methods can enhance the product evaluation experience both during the design process and online shopping, as static images often fail to convey essential product details. Virtual Reality (VR) technologies hold great potential in this regard, becoming increasingly accessible to all users. However, the influence of display mediums on emotional responses and product assessment needs further investigation, especially using physiological measures to obtain more objective insights. In this study, we investigate the influence of VR...Show more

• Tobii VR

To explore the effect of interchange spacing on drivers' visual characteristics in the merging areas of interchange, a high-density group of five interchanges on the expressway of Chongqing, China, was selected as the test site. An naturalistic driving test was conducted with 47 participants, and the Tobii Glasses II portable eye tracker was used to collect gaze data during driving. The drivers' fixation field was divided into six areas by applying a K-means dynamic clustering algorithm combined with the actual scenario. Markov chains were used to calcul...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Human–robot collaboration (HRC) is a natural progression of technological development and can improve job performance, address labor shortages, and reduce labor costs. However, it is still uncertain whether joint action, similar to that occurring between humans, can be replicated between humans and robots. Many robotic researchers have focused on joint action, and it has been demonstrated that gaze cueing plays a significant role in this context. Currently, previous studies on joint action use humanoids; however, robots utilized in the research on human-...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Most accidents in the construction industry are caused by a large proportion of hazards that remain unrecognized; this hazard-identification failure can be traced back to inadequate safety knowledge and ineffective education methods. Eye-movement modeling examples (EMMEs) show an expert’s gaze replays in the hazard-identification process with verbal explanations. Thus, with the fundamental objective of measuring the impacts of tacit and explicit safety knowledge on construction workers’ hazard-identification performance, this study demonstrated the moder...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

Evaluating the recognizability of street built environments provides crucial support for urban planning, security monitoring and navigation. Although street view images (SVIs) are widely used in urban studies, it overlooks the interconnection among different locations, which can also affect perceptions about environmental recognizability. To address this issue, this study proposes a deep learning-based model called RB-Node, which comprehensively integrates spatial structural features in a road network view and visual features from SVIs, achieving 82.56% ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

To effectively address the continuously increasing demands of air transport, air traffic management (ATM) systems are evolving towards a human-artificial intelligence (AI) hybrid automation paradigm. In this paradigm, air traffic controllers (ATCOs) play a crucial role in ensuring safe and efficient operations. Recognizing ATCOs’ task capability is essential for evaluating performance, optimizing task assignments, and personalizing training strategies. Physiological signals, such as eye movements, offer objective insights into human behavior and cognitiv...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30

In real-world applications, robots should adapt to users and environments; however, users may not know how to teach new tasks to a robot. We studied whether participants without any experience in teaching a robot would become more proficient robot teachers through repeated kinesthetic human–robot teaching interactions. An experiment was conducted with twenty-eight participants who were asked to kinesthetically teach a humanoid robot different cleaning tasks in five repeated sessions, each session including four tasks. Throughout the sessions, participant...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

With the era of automated driving approaching, designing an effective and suitable human–machine interface (HMI) to present takeover requests (TORs) is critical to ensure driving safety. The present study conducted a simulated driving experiment to explore the effects of three HMIs (instrument panel, head-up display [HUD], and peripheral HMI) on takeover performance, simultaneously considering the TOR type (informative and generic TORs). Drivers’ eye movement data were also collected to investigate how drivers distribute their attention between the HMI a...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

In digital control rooms, operators often need to monitor multiple information sources, which are spatially distributed on multiple screens, to manage multiple tasks simultaneously. Operators’ attention allocation between tasks are likely to be affected by the visual salience and eccentricity of secondary task screens. Their exact impacts and underlying mechanisms need to be investigated to inform system design to support balanced attention allocation strategies for optimal multitasking performance. This study aims to address these issues through a labor...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

EEG-based unimodal method has demonstrated significant success in the detection of driving fatigue. Nonetheless, data from a single modality might be not sufficient to optimize fatigue detection due to incomplete information. To address this limitation and enhance the performance of driving fatigue detection, a novel multimodal architecture combining hybrid electroencephalograph (EEG) and eye tracking data was proposed in this work. Specifically, the EEG and eye tracking data were separately input into encoders, generating two one-dimensional (1D) featur...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Brain Products

The guide signs at expressway play an important role in conveying road information to drivers. To study the reasonable setting of guide signs at expressway with consecutive dense exits, firstly, a bidirectional eight-lane expressway segment model were constructed with three exit ramp scenarios: “single exit”, “consecutive double exits”, and “consecutive triple exits”. Two groups of schemes (standard group and optimized group) for guide signs were set, resulting in 10 different experimental comparison schemes. Secondly, thirty-two licensed drivers were re...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

This study investigates turn-taking mechanisms in remote meetings involving supplemental materials, such as document browsing and chat tools, by comparing them with collocated meetings. We acquired multimodal datasets, including data on gaze, head movements, pupil size, speech audio, and utterance content, and analyzed gaze behavior during turn-taking and turn-giving instances. Our findings suggest that in collocated meetings, participants tend to gaze at the shared document during turn-changing, while in remote meetings, this tendency is weaker, and par...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Knowledge transfer in engineering design activity involves effectively applying prior practical experience in novel contexts. While related works fostering knowledge transfer focus on educational practices and experience generalisation, recent advancements enable us to analyze its complex cognitive processes using neuroimaging technology. This paper proposes a multimodal approach for facilitating knowledge transfer in engineering design, utilising functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and eye-tracking technologies based on neurocognitive profilin...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30

Autonomous personal mobility vehicles (PMVs), such as electric wheelchairs, are meant to drive through pedestrian spaces. Cooperative pedestrian avoidance by PMVs is necessary in these spaces to maintain smooth traffic. Previous studies suggested that PMVs can avoid pedestrians on a shorter path without compromising each other’s acceptability. This avoidance can be realized by understanding how pedestrians react to the behavior of PMVs and considering those characteristics in the autonomous navigation of PMVs. In this study, the characteristics of pedest...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

As the number of traffic accident casualties continues to rise globally, this study aims to enhance traffic safety during highway emergency repairs. Based on the fundamentals of human vision, this study designed a novel interactive barricade design, R-barricade, which aims to improve the visibility and warning effect of the barricade, as well as to enhance the interaction with the operator in order to reduce the risk of accidents. We established a comprehensive visual criteria framework, combined with eye-tracking technology, to systematically evaluate t...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Phishing via SMS, or SMiShing, is a rapidly growing cyber threat that causes significant financial losses. While research on email phishing has explored user behavior, the understanding of human factors in SMiShing detection remains limited. This study bridges the gap by investigating how users visually evaluate real-world SMS message legitimacy using eye-tracking technology. We aim to identify which message components capture user attention (e.g., sender information, typos/grammatical errors, links) and assess if users focus sufficiently on established ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Studio

The growing adoption of digital tools to support additive manufacturing (AM) calls for designers to rethink their use of design representations in the design process. For example, designers can automate concept generation through generative design, reducing reliance on conceptual sketches. Little research has explored designers’ use of design representations in design for AM (DfAM). We explored this gap through an observational study with novice designers involving an open-ended DfAM task, and their use of design representations was captured using eye-tr...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Level-2 (L2) driving automation still has many limitations, and drivers are responsible for L2 automation safety. This study investigates the impact of the criticality of takeover situations caused by longitudinal or lateral control system failures (critical, non-critical), the failure form (silent, alert), and non-driving related tasks (NDRTs) (no task, video tasks) on drivers’ physiological responses, visual behavior, and takeover performance. Sixty-eight participants completed experiments on a motion-based simulator. Results showed that participants w...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

In-vehicle infotainment systems can cause various distractions, increasing the risk of car accidents. To address this problem, mid-air gesture systems have been introduced. This study investigated the potential of a novel interface that integrates a Head-Up Display (HUD) with auditory displays (spearcons: compressed speech) in a gesture-based menu navigation system to minimize visual distraction and improve driving and secondary task performance. The experiment involved 24 participants who navigated through 12 menu items using mid-air gestures while driv...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Flight safety in helicopters is a critical aspect of overall aircraft operational safety management, particularly during engine failures requiring autorotative glide, which makes it extremely challenging for the pilot to land the helicopter successfully. In this study, we evaluated the workload and attention allocation of helicopter pilots under such circumstances. In the experiment, a helicopter flight simulator was used to simulate level flight followed by autorotative glide, with the two phases divided into time segments for data collection. First, th...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

The advancement of Intelligent vehicle is leading to a growing prevalence and importance of automotive interactive interfaces, attracting considerable research focus. With the increasing trend of global aging, the number of elderly drivers is on the rise. Research on the search performance of the automobile interactive interface for elderly users has yet to be carried out. Based on this, this research adopts eye tracking technology to explore the effects of varying icon colors on the preferences and perceptions of elderly drivers within car-human interfa...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

Eye-gaze interaction is one of the promising interactive modes with the help of human nature. The Eye-gaze interface is composed of multiple functional elements, and users need to navigate and gaze between multiple elements due to the impact of tasks. The correlation between layout and performance has become one of the key criteria for optimizing the design of gaze interfaces. The present study constructed an eye-gaze interactive task environment on the basis of Tobii X2-30 and Tobii studio, selected the optimal parameters for the area of focus and gaze ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• Tobii Pro Studio

In human-human communication, humans observe each other’s behavioral actions, and infer each other’s internal states such as intentions and emotions to build relationships. In order to establish relationships between humans and robots, robots need to recognize human actions and infer human intentions as well as to indicate robot’s own internal states to be perceived by humans. The studies in robots’ internal states indications are based on the idea of giving robots understandable human-like characteristics that allow human to infer the internal states an...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

Maritime transportation has a crucial position in world trade, but maritime transportation accidents still occur frequently. To assess human errors in maritime transportation more accurately by CREAM and thus improve the reliability of maritime transportation, the study is the first to obtain the quantitative effects of different anti-fatigue capability groups on task performance in the field of maritime transportation by combining fatigue test experiments with machine learning. First, a dataset reflecting the fatigue changes of participants in maritime ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

Expertise research studies show that experts more effectively allocate their attentional resources and exhibit distinct gaze behaviour. This study aims to investigate the effect of design expertise on gaze behaviour during the product-design evaluation process and, consequently, self-reported evaluations indicating different aspects of perceived design quality. We recruited a sample of participants with three levels of expertise (experts, quasi-experts, novices). The results provided partial support for the hypothesized classical expert gaze behaviour (i...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

The vision of smart buildings that aim to be inclusive needs to take into consideration the diversity of human needs and the various ways in which individuals interact with and experience built environments. This contribution focuses on neurodiversity, specifically investigating how certain design choices and qualities of indoor environments can have distinct impacts on individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In a controlled laboratory setting, we created six conditions with modified lighting and sound designs. Participants (14 ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Psychopy

In response to the challenge of high cognitive pressure and difficulty for commanders in cross-layer operations during the transition from traditional two-dimensional command and control system interfaces to mixed reality human-computer interaction interfaces, this paper conducts research on the information fusion display method for the human-computer interaction interface of the mixed reality command and control system. First, based on the findings of previous research, we developed a five-layer human-computer interaction interface for a mixed reality c...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Recognizing the growing importance of optimizing work environments for better cognitive performance, this study examined the relationships between general office lighting, psychophysiological responses and cognitive performance. Sixteen healthy adults in their 20s participated in experiments under nine different lighting conditions combining three levels of correlated color temperature (i.e., 4,000K, 5,000K, and 6,500K) and three levels of illuminance (i.e., 200 lx, 500 lx, and 800 lx). In the experiments, subjects’ primary and complex cognitive performa...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Biopac

This study aims to investigate left- and right-side merging sections on urban underground roads based on virtual reality driving simulator experiments. The behaviors investigated were changed by acceleration lane in the merging section, including 100, 120, and 140 m, considering current design guidelines. Typically, lane changing behavior was studied based on experiments using speed and lateral placement on driving. The behavior of more speed reduction in merging sections occurred in left-side merging than in right-side merging sections. In the left-side...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Situational awareness and decision support tools such as procedures and alarm systems are vital for effective interaction among control room operators, especially in safety-critical situations. In safety-critical environments such as process plants, there remains a gap in evaluating specific tools during actual operations, or ”work-as-done.” Additionally, the underlying factors that might impact operators’ cognitive states and performance concerning safety have not been thoroughly explored. The need for such an evaluation is further bolstered by current ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

This work tackles the problem of automatically predicting the grasping intention of humans observing their environment, with eye-tracker glasses and video cameras recording the scene view. Our target application is the assistance to people with motor disabilities and potential cognitive impairments, using assistive robotics. Our proposal leverages the analysis of human attention captured in the form of gaze fixations recorded by an eye-tracker on the first person video, as the anticipation of prehension actions is a well studied and well known phenomenon...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Augmenting visual art in art galleries can be an effective Audio Augmented Reality (AAR) application for indoor exploration. In the current study, eight paintings from four genres were augmented with audio through their sonification. Basic Audio was generated using a sonification algorithm by identifying the major colors of the paintings, and Enhanced Audio was generated by a musician enhancing the Basic Audio; these were presented with the paintings to compare against No Audio. Twenty-six participants viewed each painting in all three conditions; eye ga...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Due to the effects of low-pressure and hypoxic environments at high altitudes, drivers in high-altitude areas exhibit increased perceived reaction times, leading to challenges in accurate speed estimation and handling judgment. This study aims to quantitatively analyze the impact of plateau environments on operating speeds at interchange exit ramps. Utilizing a UC/win-road simulator, six scenarios of expressway exit ramps were constructed. The simulation experiments involved 50 participants (35 males, 15 females) from Nanjing, China (altitude of 50 m) an...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Modern aircraft cockpit system is highly information-intensive. Pilots often need to receive a large amount of information and make correct judgments and decisions in a short time. However, cognitive load can affect their ability to perceive, judge and make decisions accurately. Furthermore, the excessive cognitive load will induce incorrect operations and even lead to flight accidents. Accordingly, the research on cognitive load is crucial to reduce errors and even accidents caused by human factors. By using physiological acquisition systems such as eye...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) and drone technology into bridge inspections offers numerous advantages, including increased efficiency and enhanced safety. However, it is essential to recognize that this integration changes the cognitive ergonomics of the inspection task. Gaining a deeper understanding of how humans process information and behave when collaborating with drones and AI systems is necessary for designing and implementing effective AI-assisted inspection drones. To further understand human-drone-AI intricate dynamics, an experiment...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Physical fatigue is a frequent factor in construction workplaces that threatens workers’ safety. This study examines whether fatigue alters visual search patterns adopted by workers during hazard identification, thereby affecting identification performance. Subjects (𝑛=24) were exposed to four physical activity levels (nonfatigue, low fatigue, medium fatigue, and high fatigue) and then performed hazard identification tasks in a panoramic virtual reality context, with their search patterns being reflected by eye-movement metrics. The results show that ph...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR

Serious game can potentially improve social awareness and health literacy related to the epidemic, where interactivity, such as strategic game elements, could play a crucial role in increasing learning engagement and motivation. In this paper, we present the user study of InfecBlock, a tower-defense game designed to facilitate individual users to acquire public health knowledge related to coronavirus disease and epidemic prevention. We employed a between-subject experiment design and collected a variety of quantitative data to examine players’ learning o...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

We present CognitIDE, a tool for collecting physiological measurements, mapping them to source code, and visualizing them directly within IntelliJ-based Integrated Development Environments (IDE)s. CognitIDE facilitates the setup and conduction of empirical studies evaluating the relationships between software artifacts and physiological parameters. Corresponding measurements enable researchers to evaluate, for example, the cognitive load software developers are experiencing. Our tool lets study participants use IDEs in a natural way while eye gaze, furth...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• LSL
• itrace

Predicting situational awareness (SA) during non-driving-related tasks is critical for improving takeover performance. Although studies have focused on SA prediction based on binary classification, the interpretability of such prediction models is limited, thereby leading to inadequate coverage of SA and suboptimal model efficiency. Therefore, in this study, an interpretable prediction framework based on Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) was developed for multi-class SA prediction. This model first integrates va...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

The rising frequency of natural disasters demands efficient and accurate structural damage assessments to ensure public safety and expedite recovery. Human error, inconsistent standards, and safety risks limit traditional visual inspections by engineers. Although UAVs and AI have advanced post-disaster assessments, they still lack the expert knowledge and decision-making judgment of human inspectors. This study explores how expertise shapes human–building interaction during disaster inspections by using eye tracking technology to capture the gaze pattern...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

Past research suggests that images can be a useful tool in attracting people’s attention and improving public health communication. This is especially important for the effective transmission of health-related messages to the youth, who should be warned about risks of alcohol and tobacco use. This study explores the application of eye-tracking methodology to investigate the influence of monochromatic illustrations on youths’ visual attention to digital ads, with a particular emphasis on those presenting harmful effects of alcohol and tobacco consumption....Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

In the vision of Industry 5.0, collaborative robots (or cobots) play a central supporting role in various industries, especially manufacturing. Close interaction with cobots requires special attention to user experience to fully exploit the benefits of this paradigm. Consequently, understanding the impact of a cobot’s physical size on user experience becomes critical to optimizing human–robot collaboration (HRC). This research aims to investigate the relationship between cobot size (UR3e – small cobot vs. UR10e – large cobot) and user experience in HRC c...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Autonomous driving (AD) technology has gradually matured, but the lack of trust and acceptance from users limits its adoption and diffusion. This paper aims to solve the challenges and alleviate the trust crisis by exploring reasonable interactive output modalities. Firstly, we propose a multimodal interactive output scheme with 9 different feedback level. Subsequently, we conduct simulated driving experiments on the scheme, using three methods: driving trust experience questionnaire (DTEQ), eye-tracking, and takeover desire recording. Finally, we analyz...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Virtual reality (VR) technology emerges as a valuable tool for exploring human perception and behavior in controlled, immersive, and risk-free environments. This study applied simulated VR technology to examine the efficacy of preventive visual and auditory warnings for pedestrians at signalized intersections. More specifically, it tested four types of pedestrian signals: conventional signal, laser wall, visual crosswalk, and auditory signal. It explored the influence of these signals on pedestrian behavior under varying environmental and traffic conditi...Show more

• Tobii VR

The psychophysiological state of workers in high-risk industries can affect their work efficiency and overall well-being, representing one of the major causes of catastrophic industrial accidents. Mental load is closely associated with the psychological state of workers. This study explores the potential of deep learning (DL) in classifying and recognizing mental load by collecting physiological signals of workers engaged in hazardous operations. Thirty chemical and safety professionals were selected for data collection, including electroencephalography ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Bitbrain

Vigilance is the ability to sustain attention. It is crucial in tasks like piloting and driving that involve the ability to sustain attention. However, cognitive performance often falters with prolonged tasks, leading to reduced efficiency, slower reactions, and increased error likelihood. Identifying and addressing diminished vigilance is essential for enhancing driving safety. Neuro-physiological indicators have shown promising results to monitor vigilance, paving the way for neuroadaptive control of vigilance. In fact, the collection of vigilance-rela...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

This study presents an effort to support human reliability analysis (HRA) data collection using simplified simulators. It aims to experimentally investigate how human performance measures and human errors—pertaining to both expert and non–expert operators alike—change in correlation with simulator complexity. A randomized factorial experiment was designed with two independent variables: expertise and simulator complexity. Four human performance measures were considered in the experiment. Thirty-six actual professional operators and thirty-six student ope...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

Eye-controlled interaction is a human-computer interaction technology that users can complete the interactive behavior by moving eyes to control equipment or devices, which has the advantages of human-centered, natural and direct. During the process of eye-controlled interaction, effective visual feedback mechanisms can help users accurately understand the operation process. A vital part of eye-controlled interaction is to confirm the user’s intent to select the target character, so it is important to study the effects of different visual feedback mechan...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum