Eye tracking in psychology and neuroscience Q1 2026

Despite their significance as institutions of cultural preservation and education, many museums remain inaccessible to individuals with specific learning disorders (SpLDs), particularly Gen Z, who may face challenges in processing visual cues. This study explores the barriers that Gen Z individuals with SpLDs encounter in art museums. Through semi-structured interviews and eye-tracking studies, the research identifies key pain points. The article outlines barriers in museums, highlighting Gen Z’s perceptions and experiences. It features a case study of v...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Saccadic reaction time (SRT), an assessment of visual processing speed, may afford an accurate and unbiased measure of early childhood development (ECD). Few studies have examined SRT in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), including its drivers. We sought to identify predictors of SRT as well as to assess the correlation between SRT and concurrent measures of ECD [Global Scales of Early Development (GSED) development-for-age Z-score (DAZ), height-for-age Z-score (HAZ), and head circumference-for-age Z-score (HCZ)], among young children in Lusaka, Z...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

Young children have a demand for familiar picture books for repeated reading and thus have a need to search for picture books. Therefore, understanding their information search strategies and developing young children’s appropriate information organization is crucial. This study employed the visual search paradigm design to conduct eye-tracking experiment on 3–6 year old children’s attention to picture book elements during reading and subsequent search and relevance judgment process. This research involved 34 children, and the results revealed three find...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

BACKGROUND: Research has shown that individuals with developmental prosopagnosia (DP) may present a horizontal preference (a preference for horizontal structure) when processing faces. This preference may lead DP individuals to focus on horizontal facial information and ignore other information.METHODS: Experiment 1 explored whether there was a difference in horizontal preference between the DP group (N = 27) and the control group (N = 47) and whether this preference was based on facial rotation or low-level horizontal (vertical) information. Experiments...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii Pro Screen-based

Losing track of reading progress when switching lines can be frustrating. Eye gaze tracking technology offers a potential solution by highlighting read paragraphs, aiding users in avoiding wrong line switches. However, the gap between gaze tracking accuracy (2-3 cm) and text line spacing (3-5 mm) makes direct application impractical. Existing methods leverage the linear reading pattern but fail during jump reading. This paper presents a reading tracking and highlighting system that supports both linear and jump reading. The system leverages the large lan...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spark

Research on grammatical gender in bilinguals has mostly examined L1 effects on L2, with less focus on reverse influence or individual differences. Using visual world eye-tracking, we tested bidirectional interactions between Polish (L1) and German (L2) gender in 57 late unbalanced Polish–German bilinguals. Participants performed spoken word recognition in both languages with picture pairs whose nouns shared gender in the target language, with targets either congruent or incongruent with the other language’s gender. We also measured gender-representation ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Open Source Presentation

Although communicative language teaching is widely promoted, many educators in Japan still use traditional instructional strategies. Since Japanese is a non-alphabetic, vertically read language, it differs greatly from English, making it challenging for teachers to identify effective methods for teaching English reading to children. Responding to concerns raised by primary school English teachers, this chapter examines a study focused on two emergent reading strategies – finger tracking and synchronised reading. Finger tracking is thought to aid attentio...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses

Abstract This study examined the complexity and difficulty of pragmatic comprehension in reading tasks introduced to 30 English L2 students (Polish L1 users) of undergraduate studies in English philology. In the context of L2 language learning, task complexity is defined as the demands imposed by a task’s linguistic complexity, and difficulty as learners’ perceptions of the demands imposed by tasks. The three reading tasks included speech acts of apologizing, requesting, and complimenting. The study involved assessing the readability measures of the task...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab

Sight-reading engages complex cognitive processes, yet fine-grained strategies for specific musical parameters remain underexplored. Using a Tobii X2-60 Hz eye tracker, this study aimed to determine how experts and amateurs process key and time signatures during real time sight-reading of simple (one-hand) and complex (two-hand) passages. Three areas of interest were analysed: initial key and time signatures, accidentals and time signature changes, and the first note of a bar. The results indicate that experts performed more accurately and modulated thei...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• Tobii Pro Studio

RationalSign- and goal-tracking (ST/GT) behaviors capture individual differences in reactivity to reward-predictive cues and are increasingly recognized as translational markers of addiction vulnerability. While animal research shows that cue-reward uncertainty (i.e. the inability to predict whether a reward will follow its predictive cue) and alcohol modulate sign-tracking, empirical evidence in humans remains scarce. This experimental study investigated how acute alcohol intoxication and cue-reward uncertainty shape attentional responses to reward cues...Show more

Immersive virtual reality (VR) enables controlled tests of how emotional context distorts subjective time, yet findings remain mixed. Fifty-seven adults explored three five-minute VR environments (tranquil garden, neutral room, threatening sewer) while eye-tracking recorded pupil diameter. Baseline perceived stress (over the past-month) was assessed before VR exposure. After each environment, participants estimated elapsed time and rated mood, calmness, and arousal. Repeated-measures ANCOVA and linear mixed-effects models converged on a valence gradient:...Show more

• Tobii VR

This study examined how spatial spacing influences visual tracking efficiency using a novel text-free eye-tracking paradigm designed to minimize the influence of reading-related processes. Twenty participants visually followed straight, curved, and angular paths with five different widths (0.5-3 cm), while eye movements were recorded using a Tobii Eye Tracker T120. Results showed that narrow angular paths (0.5-1 cm) were associated with significantly higher fixation counts and longer fixation durations compared to wider angular paths and other paths. For...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, verbal & nonverbal communication, and restricted & repetitive behaviors. Early detection of ASD is crucial for timely intervention, yet it remains a challenging task due to the heterogeneous nature of its manifestations. Growing evidence indicates that existing screening methods, such as the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, may lack adequate precision for the early identification of children with ASD in clinical settings. Eye tracking captures subtle differen...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

Humans use proper names as vocal labels to identify and communicate with and about social agents. The comprehension of spoken proper names requires the ability to interpret socially specific verbal signals, or social vocal labels, and use cross-modal perception to identify and discriminate between group members. Individuals that recognize and comprehend familiar proper names can use these labels to identify and discriminate between groupmates, gain third-party knowledge, and guide decision-making. Use of vocal labels for conspecifics is noticeably rare i...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

A complex sentence may indicate if the information it expresses is presupposed by the presence of an embedding verb. Factive verbs, such as “know,” are presuppositional lexical triggers that presuppose their complements, whereas nonfactive verbs, such as “believe,” do not. A special type of factivity verb, an alternating verb such as “remember,” is ambiguous between factive and nonfactive readings. Theories differ on the proposed structural complexity of factivity verbs, and factors influencing the alternating verb’s structural selection are poorly under...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and developmental language disorder (DLD) are neurodevelopmental conditions (NDCs) that share etiological factors and frequently co-occur. Despite this, they have rarely been studied together-particularly in relation to functional outcomes. In this study, we investigate the association between the developmental pattern of sustained visual attention in infancy and number of diagnoses, and map the clinical profile of 6-year-old children. A cohort of 6-year-olds, originally rec...Show more

• Tobii Pro 1750 / 2150

This study investigated the language expertise hypothesis on mouth-looking in toddlerhood and explored potential culture and sex effects. Polish and Norwegian 18- and-24-month-olds (N = 101; 44.55% females; data collected 2022–2024) viewed a speaker telling a story in familiar and unfamiliar languages. Toddlers showed more mouth-than-eyes looking across age groups, suggesting more mouth interest. They also showed greater mouth-looking in familiar languages, indicating language familiarity effects. Toddlers with larger vocabularies showed more mouth-looki...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio
• SDK

This research investigates how Chinese proficiency and different types of illustrations affect international students reading comprehension of Chines science and Technology text. Eye tracking technology will be used to clarify the cognitive process involved. We conducted a mixed-factorial eye-tracking experiment with a 2 (Chinese proficiency: high vs. low) × 4 (illustration type: representational, explanatory, organizational, transformational) design. We used a Tobii Pro Glasses 2 eye-tracker to record eye movement data, specifically total text-image fix...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

As we explore and interact with the real world, we need to decide where to focus our attention next. The outcome of this decision influences our responses to various actions in the environment. Also scanpath prediction enhances implicit cues for task relevance and spatial awareness, optimizing the ability of LLMs and vision models to interpret visual data by modeling human-like gaze dynamics and emphasizing salient regions. The present research work analyzes features extracted and found that a combination of various parameters such as depth, presence of ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Objective.Tacit or implicit knowledge refers to know-how that experts possess but often cannot articulate, codify, or explicitly transfer to others. This can present a significant challenge for learning, skill acquisition, and knowledge transfer across various domains, including those that rely on apprenticeships, craftsmanship, sports, and medical imaging diagnosis. This study explores whether expert tacit knowledge can be accessed and leveraged using an electroencephalography (EEG) and gaze-informed biofeedback interface to enhance expertise transfer a...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• LSL
• Open Source Presentation

The study examines the neuropsychological effects of social media use on cognitive and relational functioning. A randomized controlled trial (n = 300) compared three groups: digital abstinence, moderate use (30 min/day), and intensive use (over 3 hr/day). Content typology was also analyzed for its impact on cognitive flexibility. The study lasted 8 weeks. The research protocol combined qualitative and quantitative approaches: Neurocognitive tests were supplemented with an assessment of the psychosocial condition of the participants. Group A (abstinence) ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• VARs

In the first months postterm, human infants are traditionally viewed as passive to their environment, unable to focus or sustain attention on specific objects. Here, we asked whether 4-mo-old infants could engage their attention strongly enough in a visual task to block the perception of a subsequent interesting stimulus-a phenomenon known as attentional blink, which in adults reflects a serial processing bottleneck for accessing a central workspace. We presented three successive visual events: a central teddy bear (T1) followed by a lateralized face and...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300

IntroductionThis study examines attention to pain-related facial expressions in healthy individuals during a cold pain induction, as well as the efficacy of acceptance- or distraction-based instructions in modifying attentional patterns during the induction.MethodSixty pain-free participants completed an attentional task to analyse attentional biases towards pain-related facial expressions (Stage 1). Immediately afterwards, they performed a Cold Pressor Task (CPT) to obtain pain-related measures. Then, participants were randomly assigned to either an exp...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Abstract Over the last few decades, linguistic gender-fair forms have become increasingly used by individuals and official institutions. In the French-speaking sphere, this has led to heated discussions among politicians and other stakeholders, some of whom claim that these forms render texts illegible and inaccessible to the general public. However, the processing of gender-fair forms in reading has been the topic of a few empirical studies. In the present paper, we add to this small body of research by reporting results from a pre-registered eye-tracki...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

Hazard perception is the ability to anticipate and respond to potentially dangerous traffic situations, which is an important aspect of driving competence. This paper analyses pupil size fluctuations, changes in fixation duration, and the dynamics of ambient/focal attention in a laboratory hazard-perception task to measure underlying attentional and cognitive mechanisms that occur when drivers detect hazards. In the task, licensed drivers (n = 42) watched videos of natural driving scenarios recorded through a dashboard camera while their eye movements we...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

Humans struggle to notice changes in visual scenes, a limitation called change blindness. Older adults show heightened susceptibility to change blindness, which can affect both decision making and safety. Despite increasing reliance on technology in our environments, change blindness in human-computer interactions is poorly understood. Here we used two experiments to explore change blindness in quick response (QR) codes. Experiment 1 recruited 40 participants who completed a one-shot change detection task incorporating modifications to QR code images. Ov...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii Pro Screen-based

HighlightsWhat are the main findings?Successful interception exhibits within-trial, speed-dependent shifts between predictive and reactive control in both gaze and manual trajectories.Target occlusion reduces predictive alignment, whereas cursor occlusion has a limited impact, indicating strong reliance on internal state estimation.What are the implications of the main findings?Visuomotor interception is governed by continuous reweighting of anticipatory and feedback-driven control, not by a fixed predictive strategy.Gaze and manual control show partial ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

Objective: This study investigates individual differences in executive functioning during a real-world multitasking test, the hotel task, using eye-tracking data to identify distinct attentional strategies. Method: Sixty-four young adults (Mage = 22.1, SD = 2.38) completed the hotel task while eye movements were recorded. Participants also completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function–Adult Version, an antisaccade task, and the Wiener Matrizen–Test 2. Eye-tracking data were analyzed using k-means clustering to identify strategic profiles,...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

Virtual agents powered by large language models are increasingly deployed in digital mental health services, yet the influence of avatar appearance on users’ emotional, cognitive, and physiological responses remains insufficiently understood. This study was conducted between March and April 2024 and examined how three avatar designs—animal-like, human-like, and object-like—shape affective experience, user evaluation, autonomic activity, and attentional allocation during virtual doctor interactions. Forty-two participants completed a within-subjects exper...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

This study investigates how young children’s geometric reasoning develops through the act of drawing, examining how their eye movements, actions, and verbal explanations interact to reveal emerging structural awareness. Grounded in a developmental framework of structural reasoning, the study extends this model from static visual products to the dynamic processes involved in constructing geometric figures. Using an exploratory qualitative case study design, three children (ages 5.5–7.5) completed line, circle, and rectangle drawing tasks while their gaze ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• Tobii Pro Lab

Prolonged esports play induces cognitive fatigue, characterized by diminished executive function with pupil constriction. Players often rely on caffeinated or sugary drinks to combat fatigue, but regular use poses health risks. Sparkling water, a sugar- and caffeine-free beverage, stimulates brainstem and prefrontal activity via sensory pathways potentially mediated by transient receptor potential (TRP) channels in the throat. This study tested the hypothesis that sparkling water mitigates cognitive fatigue during prolonged esports play. Fifteen young ad...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

Socially anxious individuals are characterized by higher social fears and a sensitivity to signals of rejection. Eye-tracking studies in socially anxious participants without clinical diagnoses provided mixed findings on altered attentional processes. Investigations of gaze behavior in response to socially threatening scenes are scarce. By using eye-tracking technology in a free-viewing task, the present study examined in 108 healthy women the relationship between socially anxious tendencies and gaze orientation to anger and disgust faces and social scen...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Depression is among the most prevalent mental disorders worldwide, carrying one of the highest burden of disease among all mental disorders. While invasive vagus nerve stimulation has been approved for treatment-resistant depression for decades, its clinical use is limited by surgical risks and heterogeneous clinical efficacy. Transcutaneous auricular VNS (tVNS) may offer a non-invasive alternative, but to date it remains experimental due to limited high-quality evidence, unclear biological mechanisms of action, and rudimentary knowledge on optimal stimu...Show more

• Tobii VR
• VARs

This study investigated how chimpanzees’ visual preferences for familiar faces are influenced by the temporal status of social relationships (specifically, whether the familiar face was a past or present groupmate) and by the duration of cohabitation. Using eye-tracking technology, the visual behavior of six chimpanzees was recorded as they viewed paired facial photographs consisting of one familiar and one novel individual. Familiar faces were categorized into two conditions: previously cohabitating individual’s face (past-cohabitation) and currently co...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Lab

Gaze is directed to visual objects that are informative, reward-predictive, or novel. These gaze preferences may reflect the influence of separable attention systems that prioritize items conveying uncertainty versus items with known expected reward. We tested this hypothesis in nonhuman primates learning feature-based attention to objects that had either previously learned reward associations or were novel. Reward history slowed down learning by attracting fixations to features that were previously targets. This feature-specific reward history bias pers...Show more

Autonomous wayfinding involves reading (digital) maps and memorizing route information in executable ways. The present study aimed to understand factors influencing navigational map-based route learning. Effects of a map reading instruction and the role of individual differences in perspective taking ability and visuospatial working memory capacity were investigated, considering interactions between effects of instruction and individual differences. In addition, gaze patterns were recorded to gain insights into the map reading process. In 2023, N = 106 u...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Open Source Presentation

IntroductionThe early cultivation of pro-environmental behavior is crucial for sustainable development, yet the mechanisms driving such behavior in early childhood—especially affective factors like empathy with nature—remain underexplored.MethodsThrough two experiments combining behavioral and eye-tracking measures, this study examined the effect of empathy with nature on pro-environmental behavior in 4–6-year-olds. Experiment 1 employed a 2 (empathy induced vs. control) × 3 (age: 4, 5, 6 years) between-subjects design with 180 children, measuring donati...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Understanding how children recognize facial emotions is essential for explaining the development of social communication. During the COVID-19 pandemic, widespread mask-wearing partially occluded facial expressions, potentially influencing children's emotion recognition processes. This study investigated age-related differences in emotion recognition accuracy and gaze fixation patterns in young children using eye-tracking technology. Participants included 36 three-year-olds and 45 five-year-olds. Children viewed facial expressions representing four emotio...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab

Research on category learning shows that people gradually allocate attention to deterministic features. Categorization models formalize this shift in attention as a process of "stretching" and "shrinking" dimensions of an internal representation, such that attended features bear a greater influence on choice than those ignored. Consistent with this view, gaze allocated to deterministic features increases alongside categorization accuracy. Going beyond the established relationship between gaze and performance, this work investigates whether gaze determine...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Psychopy

BackgroundBody Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a psychiatric condition characterized by obsessive preoccupation with perceived physical flaws, often accompanied by emotional dysregulation and attentional biases. Despite increasing clinical recognition, the neurophysiological and attentional mechanisms underlying BDD remain poorly understood.MethodsThis study employed a multimodal experimental design to compare individuals with BDD (n = 27) and healthy controls (n = 27). Participants completed standardized psychometric assessments and were exposed to emotion...Show more

• Tobii Pro Screen-based

Humans often unfold their actions within complex, variable environments. While such variability is sometimes irrelevant to task success, it could still influence both action decisions and confidence in their outcome. We used immersive virtual reality to examine how scene variability affects each of these processes, while also testing whether its influence extends to the dynamics of information sampling and motor execution. Our task simulated a street-crossing scenario where participants saw six cars approaching a crosswalk. In separate conditions, partic...Show more

• Tobii VR

Bilinguals show differences in face processing compared to monolinguals, automatically orienting more rapidly to faces and dwelling longer on faces and mouths than monolinguals. However, it is difficult to identify specific visual strategies from average-level data. This pre-registered study uses growth curve analysis within trials to explore individual differences in monolingual and bilingual children's dynamic allocation of visual attention to static faces ("Face Pop-Out") and dynamic mouths ("50 Faces"). Participants were from Greater London in two ag...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio
• Open Source Presentation

Traditional methods for evaluating spatial neglect or milder lateralized visuospatial attention deficits have been criticized for limited ecological relevance, narrow scope, and overly simplistic design. To address this, we introduce a new version of the Executive Performance in Everyday LIving (EPELI) virtual reality task. In the EPELI, participants perform cognitively demanding everyday chores in a home-like environment, while precise behavioral data capturing diverse aspects of visual attention is recorded. Fourteen healthy controls and ten right-side...Show more

• Tobii VR

This study examined the effects of habitual violent video gaming on emotional processing, focusing on its impact on the recognition of positive and negative facial emotions. Sixty habitual gamers participated, which included violent video gamers (VVGs; n = 30, Mage = 20.03 years, SD = 0.92), who specifically engaged in playing first-person shooters (FPS), and non-violent video gamers (NVVGs; n = 30, Mage = 21.23, SD = 3.64). Participants completed an emotional go/no-go task requiring them to recognise five basic facial emotions (i.e., happiness, anger, d...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Studio

With the increasing frequency and severity of both natural and man-made disasters, risk decision-making behavior (RDMB) in heritage tourism destinations (HTDs) has gained growing attention. Traditional studies lack a comprehensive quantification from a “human-centered” perspective and ignore individual perceptual differences in earthquake scenarios, particularly in HTDs with complex architectural layouts and diverse road systems. Taking Gulangyu as a case study, this paper integrates behavioral decision theory (BDT) with the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses

The understanding of speech production and its fine-motor underpinnings in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has become an area of growing interest in clinical research. Here, we developed objective acoustic-based measures to characterize and contrast the respiratory, laryngeal, and articulatory vocal production subsystems based on data from 27 adults with minimally-verbal autism spectrum disorder (mv-ASD) relative to 27 age-matched neurotypical (NT) peers. The complexity of representative movement dynamics of each subsystem was determined ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

BACKGROUND: Differentiating bipolar depression (BPD) from unipolar depression (UPD) is clinically challenging due to symptom overlap. This study explores eye-movement differences between UPD, BPD, and healthy controls (HCs) using a multi-task eye-tracking approach.METHODS: Eye-movement data were collected from 228 participants (60 UPD, 56 BPD, 112 HCs) across four tasks: fixation stability, free-viewing, visual search, and smooth pursuit. A total of 155 eye-movement features were extracted and analyzed using robust analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and mac...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Sensory symptoms are common in autism and may result from differences in sensory processing. The locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system modulates sensory processing by increasing selectivity to salience. To specify this mechanism, we manipulated LC-NE activity and explored sensory selectivity in autistic and non-autistic adolescents. We assessed pupillometry and electroencephalography (EEG) in 52 autistic adolescents (ASD), 55 healthy controls (CON), and 43 adolescents with other mental health conditions (MHC) during a passive auditory oddball tas...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• VARs

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often emerges in early childhood; however, objective validated biomarkers for its early detection remain limited. In this study, we aimed to identify pupil-based candidate physiological markers (i.e., physiological correlates) associated with ADHD-related traits in preschool- and early school-aged children. To this end, we recorded the pupil diameters of typically developing children without an ADHD diagnosis during a simple fixation task. From these data, we extracted multiple features, including the mean ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Several studies, in the context of the debate on early implicit theory of mind, have investigated whether infants and toddlers are able to attribute false beliefs concerning the identity of an object. As a result, there is a lack of consensus regarding whether young children are able to understand others' belief about an object's identity when it can be represented in different ways. In the present study, we address this issue by using for the first time a close adaptation of a test originally devised by Butterfill and Apperly to advance the theoretical ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Studio

Emotion Recognition (ER) is the process of analyzing and identifying human emotions from sensing data. Currently, the field heavily relies on facial expression recognition (FER) because visual channel conveys rich emotional cues. However, facial expressions are often used as social tools rather than manifestations of genuine inner emotions. To understand and bridge this gap between FER and ER, we introduce eye behaviors as an important emotional cue and construct an Eye-behavior-aided Multimodal Emotion Recognition (EMER) dataset. To collect data with ge...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion

Significant institutional efforts have moved beyond female-focused HPV health messaging since the FDA approved HPV vaccination for males in 2009. Despite increased attention to HPV prevention, however, vaccination rates among males remain low in the U.S. We use eye-tracking technology to analyse how gender-focused vaccination communication initially impacted viewer perceptions following the first male-targeted campaign. Through physiological data collection, we found that fixations on gendered text corresponded with heightened concern and positive percep...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30

This study examined the role of empathy in prosocial behavior among Chinese autistic and neurotypical children aged 4–8 between July 2018 and August 2021. Study 1 included 79 autistic children (89% boys) and 81 neurotypical children (77% boys) in a sharing task and found empathy-inducing context increased sharing in both groups, and informant-report empathy positively predicted sharing behavior. Study 2 recruited 57 autistic (82% boys) and 50 neurotypical children (78% boys) in a pain-related empathy task combining eye-tracking and a sharing task. Autist...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

Unilateral Spatial Neglect is a common neuropsychological condition following brain lesions, characterized by an attentional imbalance between the neglected (contralesional) and the preserved (ipsilesional) side of the visual field. Despite traditional paper-and-pencil neuropsychological tests are considered the standard approach for neglect diagnosis, they often lack sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy, particularly in detecting mild or uncommon forms of neglect. Some studies detected alterations in visual search patterns that might constitute a typi...Show more

Audience characteristics are often manipulated in virtual exposure or training programmes for public speaking anxiety. However, it is unclear how specific components influence stress-related emotional responses and whether public speaking anxiety levels moderate their relationships. In this study, 102 participants with varied public speaking anxiety levels gave a speech to a virtual audience consisting of either 2 or 6 members and with either an encouraging or a critical attitude. Physiological signals, speech characteristics, subjective stress levels, a...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• VARs

Background: Suicide ideation (SI) is a critical concern, and understanding its neurocognitive underpinnings is essential for improved risk assessment. This study investigates altered neurocognitive processing during face recognition in individuals with depression and SI, utilizing a multimodal approach combining eye-tracking, electroencephalography (EEG), and deconvolution modeling.Methods: Eye-tracking and EEG data were recorded during face recognition tasks in individuals with depression, with and without SI. We analyzed visual attention patterns (fixa...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Open Source Application

This study investigated the influence of negative emotions on strategy selection using eye movements. Participants were asked to find the better estimates of two consecutive two-digit multiplication problems (e.g. 86 × 21) in each trial. They could choose between a rounding-down (i.e. doing 80 × 20 = 1600) or a rounding-up (i.e. doing 90 × 30 = 2700) strategy on each problem. The first problem in a trial appeared on emotionally neutral pictures and the second problem on neutral or negative pictures. Negative pictures increased repetitions of strategies a...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Ascription of leadership status is influenced by efficient cognitions that process visual cues, including a person’s clothing. The present research investigates the perceptual, attentional and higher-level cognitive processing (i.e. prototype activation) mechanisms underlying clothing-based leadership status ascription. Drawing on Implicit Leadership Theory and Cognitive Load Theory, we examine how clothing style (formal vs. informal) and clothing distinctiveness (standout vs. balanced) influence leadership status ascription. In two experiments – an onli...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

Hybrid shopping environments—where digital and physical touchpoints merge—have transformed consumer engagement. Yet current retail strategies rarely adapt in real time to consumers' neuro-emotional states grounded in established theoretical frameworks. Drawing on the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) model and affective computing theory, this study introduces the Neuroadaptive Retailing Index (NRI), a novel metric capturing the dynamic synchrony between consumers' neural, physiological, and visual responses and the adaptive stimuli of retail interfaces....Show more

• LSL
• VARs

Distinct visual processing patterns are one of the underlying mechanisms of atypical facial emotion recognition in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. However, the role of peripheral visual processing, particularly the functional field of view (FFOV), remains unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationships among autistic traits, FFOV size, and facial emotion recognition ability. Seventy-five students completed the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and then performed facial emotion recognition and FFOV tasks. In the emotion recognitio...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Open Source Presentation

BackgroundIt is thought that the brain relies upon Bayesian inference to integrate sensory input with prior beliefs, updating its environmental model through prediction errors—discrepancies between expected and actual sensory input. This study investigates whether and how pupil diameter and sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle activity reflect neurophysiological responses to uncertainty during locomotor adaptation. New Method: Twenty-four healthy young adults walked on a split-belt treadmill with probabilistic perturbations (80 % of right heel strikes) trigg...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab
• VARs

The GaMMA (Gaze, Motion, and Multi-talker Audio) corpus captures the behavior of polyadic conversations among native Danish speakers under both normal and cocktail party conditions. Eleven groups of four normal-hearing participants are recorded while engaged in natural and spontaneous interactions. All conversations were conducted without conversational tasks. Each group was intentionally composed of participants with prior intragroup and interpersonal relations. Gaze and motion data were collected using an optical tracking system and eye-tracking glasse...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition marked by repetitive behaviors and challenges in communication and social interaction, with about 1 in 100 children affected. Diagnosis of ASD is challenging due to its reliance on subjective behavioral evaluations, but advanced technologies such as Deep Learning are being explored to improve early and accurate diagnoses. Among them, one promising application in ASD research is analyzing eye gaze patterns, as individuals with ASD often exhibit atypical behaviors, such as reduced eye...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

BACKGROUND: Attending information presented in the peripheral visual field is crucial for many tasks, such as car driving and playing sports. A substantial body of research addresses the performance in detecting visual information across the visual field. However, there is a lack of studies presenting targets in a naturalistic visual environment and controlling the location of fixation by recording gaze objectively. The present study aims to close this gap and contribute to the knowledge on role of retinal periphery in information processing.METHOD: Cent...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

BACKGROUND: Eye-tracking (ET) technology shows promise in improving the assessment of Unilateral Spatial Neglect (USN) by overcoming the limitations in sensitivity of traditional paper-and-pencil tests. This scoping review aimed to explore current trends in the use of ET for evaluating USN.METHODS: Seven databases were systematically searched. The methodology followed the Joanna Briggs Institute guidelines for scoping reviews.RESULTS: Twenty publications were included, involving 282 healthy adults and 457 post-stroke individuals. Left-sided USN was repor...Show more

Researchers use area of interest (AOI) analyses to interpret eye-tracking data. This article addresses four key aspects of AOI use: 1) how to report AOIs to support replicable analyses, 2) how to interpret AOI-related statistics, 3) methods for generating both static and dynamic AOIs, and 4) recent developments and future directions in AOI use. The article underscores the importance of aligning AOI design with the study’s conceptual and methodological foundations. It argues that critical decisions, such as the size, shape, and placement of AOIs, should b...Show more

This study examines the therapeutic, interactive, and immersive potential of virtual reality (VR) as a transformative tool in psychology and education. Research indicates that VR enhances engagement, reduces stress, and supports learning through analysis of user experience, physiological data, and feedback. The findings highlight its value for experiential learning and mental health rehabilitation. Within a short period, VR has emerged as a revolutionary technology across medicine, academia, and the arts, offering new opportunities for therapy, education...Show more

• Tobii VR

Emotion recognition using physiological signals, particularly electroencephalogram (EEG), has garnered significant attention due to its objectivity and resistance to masking. However, challenges remain, including high dimensionality, non-stationarity, and noise susceptibility in raw EEG data, alongside limitations in existing methods for multi-scale feature extraction. This study introduces STPA-Net, which consists of three main modules: (i) a Backbone for preprocessing raw EEG to preserve spatiotemporal patterns, (ii) a Multi-scale Attentional Feature P...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Studio

This article reports on a pilot study examining the role of emotionally expressive subtitles in improving the accessibility and inclusivity of audiovisual (AV) content for d/Deaf and Hard of Hearing audiences. Standard subtitling practices, although widely used, prioritize linguistic accuracy at the expense of conveying affective information crucial for narrative understanding. The study described here investigates alternative subtitling strategies that integrate visual design elements – such as dynamic typography, color, and motion – to reflect the emot...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

The ERP components P3 and P600 have been proposed to reflect phasic activity of the locus coeruleus norepinephrine (LC/NE) system in response to deviant and task-relevant stimuli across cognitive domains. However, causal evidence for this link remains limited. Here, we used continuous transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS), a noninvasive method proposed to modulate LC/NE activity, to test whether these components are indeed sensitive to NE manipulation. Forty participants completed both an active visual oddball task and a sentence proce...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Open Source Presentation
• VARs

Recently, there has been a growing trend towards assessing test-takers’ ability to summarize different sources (e.g., lectures, texts, and charts). While integrated tasks often focus on read-to-write tasks, listen-to-write tasks are increasingly used to evaluate summarization skills. This study aimed to deepen our understanding of how listening comprehension influences note-taking strategies and summarization performance in two distinct listen-to-summarize tasks. In this mixed-methods study, we used a wearable eye-tracking device (Tobii Pro Glasses 3, ve...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab

Virtual Reality-based Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (VR-EMDR) has been proven effective in treating adults with major depressive disorder (MDD). However, its effectiveness in treating adolescents with MDD is less studied, and its underlying neuroimaging mechanism remains unknown. Sixty-eight adolescents with MDD and 29 adolescent healthy control (HC) were recruited. Adolescents with MDD were randomly allocated to the intervention group and the wait-list control group. The intervention group received 12-session of VR-EMDR, while a...Show more

• Tobii VR

Previous research showed that the processing of nouns with an implicit spatial position (“up words” such as “moon” or “down words” such as “shoe”) biases vertical responses in children from the age of two. “Up words” seem to direct looks upward (visuo-spatial bias) and facilitate the fixation of targets that appear at an upper position, while the opposite occurred for “down words”. In this preregistered study, we investigated when such language-space associations emerge. We tested children aged between 18 and 24 months (n = 30), and a group of young adul...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300

White noise has been proposed to enhance cognitive performance in children with ADHD, but findings are inconsistent, and benefits vary across tasks and individuals. Such variability suggests that diagnostic comparisons may overlook meaningful developmental differences. This exploratory study examined whether developmental characteristics and subjective evaluations of auditory and visual white noise predicted performance changes in two eye-movement tasks: Prolonged Fixation (PF) and Memory-Guided Saccades (MGS). Children with varying degrees of ADHD sympt...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Open Source Presentation

Eye movement classification, particularly the identification of fixations and saccades, plays a vital role in advancing our understanding of neurological functions and cognitive processing. Conventional modalities of data, such as RGB webcams, often face limitations such as motion blur, latency and susceptibility to noise. Neuromorphic Vision Sensors, also known as event cameras (ECs), capture pixel-level changes asynchronously and at a high temporal resolution, making them well suited for detecting the swift transitions inherent to eye movements. Howeve...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses
• Open Source Application

Color schemes are a crucial component of modern product design and user experience, closely linked to users' emotional needs. However, emotional experiences with product colors are inherently complex and abstract. Accurately capturing these emotional tendencies and translating them into effective color schemes has long been a challenge in emotional design. This study proposes an emotional experience-based approach to product color matching, grounded in Kansei Engineering (KE). To establish a robust closed-loop between design and evaluation, both forward ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

The integration of eye-tracking into consumer-grade virtual reality (VR) headsets presents a transformative opportunity for assessing user mental states within simulated, immersive environments. However, the validity of this built-in technology must be established against gold-standard real-world eye-tracking systems. This study employs a novel paradigm using a physically moving object to evaluate the accuracy of dynamic smooth pursuit, a key oculomotor function in mental state assessment. We rigorously validated the performance of the HTC Vive Pro Eye’s...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii VR

BACKGROUND: Postpartum depression (PPD) has been linked to alterations in emotional processing, yet attentional biases toward infant emotional expressions remain poorly understood and findings are inconsistent. This study examined whether mothers with PPD symptoms differ from mothers without symptoms and non-depressed non-mothers in visual attention to emotional infant and adult faces.METHODS: 26 mothers with PPD symptoms, 30 mothers without symptoms, and 21 non-depressed non-mothers. Participants completed a free-viewing eye-tracking task presenting emo...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120
• Tobii Pro Lab

This longitudinal study investigated electrical brain responses to approaching visual motion in full-term and preterm infants and children at 4 months, 1 year, and 6 years. Participants viewed a virtual ball approaching head-on at fast, medium, and slow speeds. Full-term participants showed looming-related brain responses that occurred progressively closer to the point of virtual collision, with mean time-to-collision (TTC) values decreasing from -835 ms at 4 months to -575 ms at 1 year and -260 ms at 6 years. In contrast, preterm children exhibited only...Show more

• Tobii Pro X50
• Tobii ClearView

Abstract The nature of eye movements during visual search has been widely studied in cognitive science. Virtual reality (VR) paradigms are an opportunity to test whether computational models of search can predict naturalistic search behavior. However, existing ideal observer models are constrained by strong assumptions about the structure of the world, rendering them impractical for modeling the complexity of environments which can be studied in VR. To address these limitations, we modeled immersive visual search as a reinforcement learning problem, in w...Show more

• Tobii VR

Abstract This study investigated the effects of xu -argument-based continuation writing on learners’ processing of source texts. Seventy-five participants were randomly assigned to three conditions: (1) continuation writing, (2) summary writing, or (3) reading comprehension. Eye-tracking data were collected during reading, measuring early (first fixation duration, first pass duration) and late (go-past time, total fixation duration) eye movements. During writing, source-text rereading was tracked via fixation counts and durations. Results showed that tas...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

During a lesson, children must pay attention to relevant information while they also have to ignore distractors. This study investigated attention in 36 neurotypical children (M = 8.5 years; 19 female, 17 male; 36 White) during the lesson with lesson-related decorations, with unrelated decorations, and with empty walls. Overt attention was recorded via eye-tracking glasses. Postlesson learning was measured directly after the lesson and 1 week later. Children looked more to the lesson-related compared with lesson-unrelated decorations, and more to the tea...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2

High arousal states, like fear and anxiety, play a crucial role in organisms’ adaptive responses to threats. Yet, inducing and reliably measuring such states within controlled settings presents challenges. This study uses a novel approach of CO 2 enriched air vs normal air in a Virtual Reality (VR) context to induce high arousal whilst measuring physiological signals such as galvanic skin response (GSR), facial skin impedance, facial electromyography (fEMG), photoplethysmography (PPG), breathing, and pupillometry. In a single-blind study, 63 participants...Show more

• Tobii VR

Introduction: Emotional support is increasingly recognized as a critical component of effective early childhood education, yet empirical evidence comparing different scaffolding styles during classroom activities remains limited. This study examined how affective versus instructional teacher scaffolding shapes preschool children's emotional engagement during electronic storybook reading.Methods: Forty-one children aged 4-6 years from one preschool were assigned by class to either an affective-scaffolding or instructional-scaffolding condition. Children's...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Shimmer GSR

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Current diagnostic methods rely primarily on subjective clinical evaluations, which are prone to bias. Neurophysiological techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), eye tracking, and electrodermal activity (EDA) offer promising objective alternatives; however, their adoption is limited by the scarcity of large, public, multimodal datasets. To address this gap, we introduce the BALLADEER ADHD Datase...Show more

• SDK

Exploring early-stage orienting behavior is essential for elucidating the behavioral mechanisms underlying attentional shifts in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, traditional tasks lacking eye-tracking data often obscure these mechanisms. This study investigates low-level attentional shifting in ADHD using a simplified gaze-cueing task and explores classification markers via eye movement. Eye-tracking data were analyzed from 27 typically developing children and 19 children diagnosed with ADHD. We constructed a logistic regression ...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• SDK
• Open Source Presentation

Do individuals possess a "gaze fingerprint" that reveals how they uniquely look at the world? We tested this question by examining intra- and intersubject gaze similarity across 700 static pictures of complex natural scenes. Independent discovery (n = 105) and replication data sets (n = 46) of adults aged 18 to 50 years (sampled from Italy and Germany) revealed that gaze fingerprinting is possible at relatively high rates (e.g., 52%-63%) compared with chance (e.g., 1%-2%). We also identify gaze-fingerprint barcodes, which reveal a unique individualized c...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

There is a connection between neuroinflammation and panic attacks (PA), as microglia-driven pro-inflammatory responses help detect homeostatic disturbances like CO₂ inhalation. This model has become widely used in research since CO₂ exposure can trigger PA in humans and panic-related behavior in mice. Minocycline inhibits microglia activation, serving as a promising tool to attenuate CO2-induced PA. The locus coeruleus (LC) is a CO₂/pH-sensitive region, and disruptions in its activity are linked to psychiatric conditions such as panic disorder (PD). We i...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

Prior research have not extensively explored potential categorical differences in mental fatigue induced through various methods. In this study, mental fatigue was induced through two methods: continuous cognitive tasks (CCT) and sleep deprivation (SD), with data on EEG and eye movement modalities collected before and after fatigue induction. Using a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) algorithm with an attention mechanism, we classified the multimodal data to identify the presence of mental fatigue. The results demonstrate that multimodal features signif...Show more

• Tobii Pro T60 XL
• ErgoLab

Understanding how people make decisions across various contexts is at the core of theoretical and applied work in behavioral decision research. In this study, we investigate how process tracing contributes to the understanding of common and distinct processes underlying risky and intertemporal choices in three eye-tracking experiments. Experiment 1 elicited behavioral patterns that were interpreted as supporting a common mechanism (i.e., the common ratio effect in risky choice and the common difference effect in intertemporal choice). In contrast, Experi...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

Proactive cognitive control enables individuals to anticipate and prepare for upcoming cognitive demands. Whereas prior research highlights the involvement of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in proactive cognitive control, the lateralization of this function remains unclear. In this single-blind, sham-controlled, within-subject, randomized preregistered study, 31 healthy participants (mean age = 22.26, SD = 4.01; 18 women) received, in three separate sessions, sham and active high-frequency (20hz) repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Open Source Application

Individual differences in learning to learn were examined in two studies. Participants performed a paired associates learning task across multiple trials. During learning task-evoked pupillary responses (as a measure of the intensity of attention) and fluctuations in baseline pupillary diameter (as a measure of arousal regulation) were measured. Participants were also presented with thought-probes to assess off-task thoughts and the consistency of attention during learning. Participants also completed measures of working memory and long-term memory, and ...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

Implicit motives are dispositions that facilitate learning in the service of incentive attainment and disincentive avoidance, with attentional orienting being one likely outcome of such learning processes. This assumption was put to the test in an eye-tracking study (N = 90 for Experiment 1; N = 138 for Experiment 2, after exclusions) that investigated the role of the implicit need for power (nPower), the capacity to derive pleasure from influencing others, in the acquisition of attentional bias via stimulus-driven learning. nPower, measured using a Pict...Show more

• Tobii Pro Screen-based

Accurate detection of eye movement events is crucial for unraveling complex visual behaviors and driving advancements in neuroscience and cognitive research. Deep learning approaches have demonstrated exceptional potential, surpassing traditional and machine learning methods by effectively capturing and modeling intricate patterns in eye movement data. However, existing deep learning methods face limitations, with small receptive fields struggling to capture cross-boundary information and large receptive fields failing to precisely delineate event border...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300

Linguistic prediction, which emerges from experience, is a pervasive process in language comprehension. However, how prediction develops as learning unfolds and how it drives the learning process remains unclear. This study examines three key questions: (1) whether learning is associated with growth in prediction, (2) whether stronger prediction errors are associated with greater learning, and (3) whether linguistic prediction skills are stable across tasks. Our results revealed that learners who successfully updated their verb biases showed greater grow...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120

In the contemporary landscape of basketball, characterized by an escalating tempo and heightened defensive intensity, the 3-point shot has emerged as a pivotal weapon for teams striving to secure victory. Consequently, enhancing the 3-point field goal percentage has become an utmost concern for coaches and players alike. The objective of this study is to examine the influence of visual attention training on the visual attention characteristics and field goal percentage among semi-professional basketball players, thus establishing a scientific basis for b...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Purpose This study examines the usability, acceptability and technical implementation of an adaptive digital platform that supports executive functions and emotion regulation in children with specific educational support needs (SESN), aiming to facilitate their personal, social, and academic growth. Design/methodology/approach A process of co-design was followed for the definition of the functionality of the digital platform, including the participation of focus groups of teachers working with children with SESN and the participation of independent pane...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano

INTRODUCTION: Research using self-reported measures demonstrates that "The Real Cost" Youth Cigarette and E-Cigarette Prevention Campaigns affect tobacco-related beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions, and behaviors. This study provides insights by assessing attentional, affective, and cognitive responses to ads from "The Real Cost" campaigns among U.S. young adults using non-self-report measures.METHODS: Attentional, affective, and cognitive responses (eye tracking, facial electromyography, electrodermal activity, functional near-infrared spectroscop...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Spark

Understanding how tacit knowledge embedded in visual materials is accessed and utilized during evaluation tasks remains a key challenge in human-computer interaction and visual expertise research. Although eye-tracking studies have identified systematic differences between experts and novices, findings remain inconsistent, particularly in art-related visual evaluation contexts. This study examines whether tacit aspects of visual evaluation can be inferred from gaze behavior by comparing individuals with and without formal art education. Visual evaluation...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• Tobii Pro Lab

Perceptual decision-making processes, particularly in the context of eye movements and reaction times (RT), have been studied to better understand how the brain integrates and responds to sensory information. Recent models have decomposed the process into multiple intermediate steps, including detection, instruction processing, decision, and motor response. To investigate the impact of the observer's expectations on each of these steps, we conducted two experiments on 24 participants (including both female and male participants), manipulating respectivel...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab
• Open Source Presentation

Glucocorticoids are a commonly proposed pathway through which offspring socioemotional development is shaped by the prenatal environment. However, studies have primarily assessed fetal cortisol exposure indirectly. We examine whether neonatal hair cortisol concentrations, an index of fetal cortisol exposure during the third trimester, are associated with early markers of offspring socioemotional development (negative affectivity and attention to affective faces). Participants included 107 mothers and their 6-month-old infants (59% female). Neonatal hair ...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

The attentional system tends to prioritize negative stimuli in the early stages of processing, favoring threat detection. However, it is unclear whether this bias is maintained or reversed toward positive stimuli at later stages. In this study, we used a free-viewing paradigm with eye tracking to examine early and late attentional biases toward negative, positive, and neutral stimuli (humans in emotionally unloaded activities) versus control stimuli (inanimate objects) in 122 participants without affective disorders (64 men, 58 women). We fitted generali...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• Tobii Pro Lab

This study explored how the three psychopathy dimensions— Grandiose-Deceitful (GD), Callous-Unemotional (CU) and Impulsive-Need for Stimulation (INS)—are related to emotion recognition in a community sample of 345 children (52.2% male) aged 8 to 12 (M = 10.31 years). Participants viewed static facial images depicting basic emotions (i.e., happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and neutral) while accuracy, reaction time (RT), and attentional patterns (via eye-tracking) were recorded. Regarding the accuracy of emotion recognition, CU traits were the only psychop...Show more

• Tobii Pro Lab
• Tobii Pro Screen-based

This study investigated how tactile exploration of visually similar but materially different artwork pairs, i.e., congruent (matching tactile properties) or incongruent (mismatching tactile properties), influences aesthetic evaluation, embodied experience, and neural processing. We examined how prediction errors during incongruent trials relate to beauty, pleasure, and interest ratings, as well as mismatch negativity (MMN), associated with sensory surprise. Sixty-six participants explored eight artwork pairs, while EEG was recorded and were asked to rate...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

Public speaking is one of the most commonly feared situations by socially anxious adolescents, often prompting behavioral anxiety markers including gaze avoidance and speech disruptions. While the potential adverse social consequences of behavioral anxiety markers in public speaking contexts have been established, research into how these markers might alter through cognitive behavior therapy is still in its infancy. In this preliminary study, we investigated changes in gaze behavior and speech disruptions from before to after 12 weeks of disorder-specifi...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

Background: Focus and concentration are influenced by various environmental factors, such as listening to music. Recent research highlights the individualized nature of music's effects on concentration, as responses vary significantly between individuals based on music genres and personal preference. Traditional population-based studies often obscure these between-person differences, while N-of-1 trials, which are individual crossover trials, can provide a personalized approach by allowing each participant to serve as their own control. This study design...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• LSL

Autistic individuals commonly exhibit difficulties with emotion recognition, difficulties that contribute to social issues in Autism. Both emotion recognition and social abilities are distributed along a spectrum in Autism and the general population. We explored how Autistic traits, including social abilities, relate to emotional processing measured via pupil dilation in a neurotypical population. We presented participants with dynamic, audiovisual stimuli of actors uttering a semantically neutral phrase. These utterances were expressed with either a neu...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120

OBJECTIVE: Recent research has proposed several behavioural measures as proxies for assessing communication difficulty caused by increased noise or compromised hearing. This study aimed to examine which of a selection of such measures best predicts perceived communication difficulty arising from noise or attenuated hearing.DESIGN: Dyad conversations, prompted by a spot-a-difference task, were recorded twice under four conditions: in quiet with and without occluded ears, and in noise at 60 and 70 dBA without occlusion. After each conversation, participant...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 3

BACKGROUND: Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is characterized by attentional biases that may contribute to its persistence. While adult models emphasize self-focused and hypervigilant attention, there is limited understanding of how these processes operate in children. This study examined internal and external attentional biases in children with SAD during anticipation of a social stress task-a period when anxiety is typically elevated.METHODS: Forty-two children with a primary SAD diagnosis and 46 healthy controls (HC), aged 9-14 years, completed a reactio...Show more

• Tobii Pro Glasses 2
• Tobii Pro Lab

As online resources expand, users increasingly engage in complex search tasks to acquire knowledge or explore unfamiliar topics. Supporting dynamic and interactive search behaviors remains challenging for current search engines, but conversational search offers a promising solution. In conversational search, users express intent naturally through spoken language and engage in multi-turn interactions to progressively satisfy their information needs. Previous studies on traditional web search have shown that task complexity and domain expertise significant...Show more

• Tobii Pro X2-60 / X2-30
• Tobii Pro Studio

ObjectiveTo examine the characteristics of gaze behavior, particularly gaze-stimulus synchrony, and their association with developmental levels in young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).MethodsEye-tracking data were obtained from 52 children with ASD, 58 with global developmental delay (GDD), and 55 typically developing (TD) children, aged 18 to 48 months, while they viewed a video of a girl rhythmically clapping and moving to a song. Area of interest (AOI) analysis was performed to assess visual fixation patterns throughout the task, and rec...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• ErgoLab

ABSTRACT The asymmetric subjective opportunity cost (ASOC) effect in intertemporal choice refers to the increase of an individual's preference for a larger and later (LL) option when the opportunity cost of the smaller and sooner (SS) option is highlighted compared to when it is not, while the individual's intertemporal preference is unaffected when the opportunity cost of the LL option is highlighted. This study, based on the attribute‐based models, investigated the attentional mechanism by which opportunity costs implication influence intertemporal cho...Show more

• Tobii Pro TX-300
• Tobii Pro Studio

Purpose Social media platforms leverage user data to precisely deliver persuasive in-feed advertising aimed at promoting products. However, this approach may provoke heightened adverse reactions among users with elevated privacy sensitivity. This study examines the mechanisms by which privacy-sensitive users avoid persuasive narratives embedded in in-feed native advertising, with a particular focus on the processes of psychological reactance and visual avoidance. Design/methodology/approach This study employed two laboratory experiments and an eye-track...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

This study investigates subject pronoun resolution in Catalan, a null-subject language, by examining linguistic and cognitive factors. We focus on gender, pronoun type (null and overt), and syntactic function (subject and object), as well as the order of mention (first and second) of antecedents. Using eye-tracking in the Visual World Paradigm (VWP), we analyze the interplay between these factors in both canonical (SVO) and non-canonical (OVS) sentence structures. Experiments 1, 2 and 3 (Study 1) explore how gender cues and pronoun type influence pronomi...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

ABSTRACT This study examines the impact of low‐saturation background colors on working memory through a detailed multimodal analysis involving functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), eye tracking, and subjective assessments. The aim is to identify colors that enhance or impede cognitive performance and uncover the physiological mechanisms involved. Thirty‐eight participants completed a 2‐back working memory task under nine different background color conditions, during which cognitive performance, brain activation patterns, and eye movement data we...Show more

• Tobii Pro Nano
• Tobii Pro Lab

PURPOSE: This study evaluated eye movements (i.e., regressions, fixations, and saccades) in a variety of reading contexts in school-age children with and without reading disorders (RDs).METHOD: This study used an experimental design with two groups: peers with RDs and typically developing (TD) peers. A Tobii Pro Spectrum system was used to capture eye movement data for all participants during the reading tasks under the following conditions: (a) single words without cognitive demand, (b) single-word reading with cognitive demand, and (c) grade-level para...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Tobii Pro Lab

PurposeThe effects of repetitiveness in geometric figures on the preferences of autistic persons or whether such preferences for repetitive patterns are associated with local processing abilities, are unclear. This study investigated two potential mechanisms underlying the preference of autistic persons for geometric figures: (1) a preference for repetitive visual information and (2) a tendency for local processing superiority.MethodsAn eye-tracking device was used to record gaze behavior in 20 autistic persons and 19 neurotypical participants as they vi...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum
• Open Source Presentation

Wardrobe fronts form a major visual element in bedroom interiors, yet material selection for their colors and textures often relies on intuition rather than evidence. This study develops a data-driven framework that links gaze behavior and affective responses to occupants’ preferences for wardrobe front materials. Forty adults evaluated color and texture swatches and rendered bedroom scenes while eye-tracking data capturing attraction, retention, and exploration were collected. Pairwise choices were modeled using a Bradley–Terry approach, and visual-atte...Show more

• Tobii Pro Fusion
• ErgoLab

A pattern of reduced accuracy in children’s lineup decisions has been a consistent issue in developmental eyewitness literature. Using eyetracking technology, this study examined whether the number of looks and time spent looking at a perpetrator during the commission of a crime (encoding) and a subsequent lineup (retrieval) reflected lineup decision accuracy in children (6–12 years old). While time spent viewing perpetrators’ faces during encoding was not related to lineup decision accuracy, the number of fixations (‘looks’) at the perpetrators during e...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with distinct visual attention patterns that provide insight into underlying social-cognitive mechanisms. Methods: This systematic review (PROSPERO: CRD42023429316), conducted per PRISMA guidelines, synthesizes evidence from 14 peer-reviewed studies using eye-tracking to compare oculomotor strategies in autistic children and typically developing (TD) controls. A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, and Science Direct up to March 2025. Study inclusion criteria foc...Show more

Understanding the influence of the morphological mechanisms of Mei Gui chairs on the emotional preferences of female users is crucial for achieving perceptual resonance in design. This study aims to investigate/explore the relationship between user preferences and design features to create furniture with greater emotional resonance. (1) Background: To develop a scientifically validated model for predicting user preferences in Mei Gui chair design by emotional factors and morphological mechanisms. (2) Methods: (a) Data Collection: Establish a dataset of M...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Lab
• ErgoLab

Antenatal depression is a common psychological condition in pregnancy that negatively influences parenting. Theoretical models suggest that infant cue processing may represent one pathway by which depression may influence parenting. However, current understanding of how infant cue processing is linked with parenting in depression remains limited. Drawing upon previous research, cortisol stress reactivity may play an important role in this regard. The aim of the present study was to investigate the interaction between depressive symptoms and attentional d...Show more

• Tobii Pro X60 / X120 / T60 / T120
• Tobii Pro Studio

In this study, a dynamic modeling and real-time intervention system based on deep reinforcement learning is proposed to address the problems that static models in current children’s cognitive development intervention are difficult to dynamically track changes in individual cognitive states and that personalized strategies are not adaptable enough. The cognitive state space is constructed by collecting multimodal behavioral data (including eye tracking, task completion time, and EEG signals) of children aged 3–6 years old, and an improved deep Q-network (...Show more

• Tobii Pro Spectrum

To be able to have neuro-adaptive tools, it is useful to be able to forecast performance when doing interventions. In this paper we use results from an experiment collecting biometric data from different sensors, capturing EEG, eye-tracking, physiological state and facial expression (through cameras). Earlier work has shown the possibility of using such data in causality-analysis. In this paper we investigate to what extent we can use these results for forecasting the effect of different interventions. The paper shows that the basic forecasting results a...Show more

• Tobii Pro X3-120